URBAN

DESIGN

S ITE G R A D IN G
GROUP MEMBER
JAMAL NASAR
JUNAID ORAKZAI
IAJAZ AHMAD

Land development involves disturbing the existing condition of a site

in favor of
a different condition, usually directed by a design. A good design
considers the
character of the site being developed. Sustainable site development
requires that
design professionals consider the predevelopment environmental
function of a site and seek ways to retain that function to the degree
it is possible. Minimizing the disturbed area of a site is a critical
consideration.
Undisturbed
and pristine
sites System
may have
a higher
The National Pollutant
Discharge
Elimination
(NPDES)
was
functional
than severely compromised former industrial sites,
introducedquality
in
but
it as
is not
to findWater
existing
elements
1972
partunusual
of the Clean
Act important
to control functional
the discharge
of
even
on these
urban sites.
pollutants
into compromised
waters in the United
States. Initially the program was
focused on point sources; that is, industrial or municipal waste
sources where the source and the owner could be identified. In the
late 1980s the program was expanded to include nonpoint sources
(NPS); these sources were more ubiquitous and less easily identified.

Under the new regulations, all nonpoint sources, including storm

water, were to be identified. The program was designed to be
implemented in phases. Phase I was put in place in October 1992 and
included major construction activities that disturbed 5 or more acres.
A proposed Phase II rule was published in 1998, which became
effective in 2001. Under the Phase II rule, construction sites of 1 to 5
acres would require a permit. Two permits are available under the
NPS rules: an individual permit for specific facilities and a general
permit.

Engineering Properties of Soil

The soil survey provides general information relating to topography,
depth to bedrock, and hydrologic character of soils, but it is primarily
used as part of the site analysis to determine the development
capabilities of the soil. Grain size distribution is an important factor in
how a soil will behave under different conditions. The variations
caused by grain size distribution, clay mineralogy, and organic
content in the presence of water are identified by geologists and
engineers. The Unified Soil Classification System provides a relatively
simple and reasonably accurate description of physical characteristics
of soil important to site development. The classification is based on
grain sizes from coarse to fine, or on the amount of organic matter in
the soil. The classification system includes 12 types of soil: four
coarse-grained soils, four fine-grained soils, and four combinations of
fine and coarse grains. The classification also includes three organic
soils. A coarse grained soil is one in which over half of the soil is sand
sized or larger. A fine-grained soil means half of the soil is silt or clay.
Within these categories are subcategories based on the distribution
of soil particle size. Table 7.1 lists the symbols use to identify soils,
and Table 7.2 provides the Unified Soil Classification System
categories and characteristics.

The Balanced Site

The most economical grading plan includes a minimum of earthwork
with cut and fill
in balance. Several factors influence the balance. For example, sites
with soils with a
high plasticity index or with high organic content may have to be
removed and replaced under building pads or where other site
structures are planned. Another factor is the tendency of some soils
to expand when excavated; some soils bulk significantly when
disturbed. To design a balanced site, the professional needs
geotechnical information regarding the soils character, the bearing
capacity of the soil, its bulking factor, and the depth and character of
the bedrock. Traditionally, volumes were calculated using the
average-end method; however, most designers today use a computer
to determine volumes.

imizing the Impact of Site Grading

The most important element in minimizing the disturbed
area is the design itself. Site layout and design should
provide an effective synthesis of the development
program or objective with minimum disturbance. As the
site is graded to provide the necessary shape and
surfaces on which to construct the proposed site
elements, the impacts of the earthwork increase. Among
the most significant is the increased risk of erosion and
sediment pollution to streams and lakes, as well as the
problem of blowing dust. The grading changes made to
the site can result in redirecting site drainage away from
existing drainage patterns and into new paths. A
temporary construction drainage pattern often is not
considered in project planning, and drainage can become
a serious problem if not managed properly. The impact
could result in off-site damage to habitat and surface
water quality, which in turn could lead to fines and
increased project costs. Public relations problems and
damage to the credibility of those involved often result

nimizing the Disturbed Area

The new features such as roads or buildings must fit into the physical
characteristics of the site and minimize the need for large cuts and fills.
By minimizing the disturbance and the excavated area at the design level,
the designer begins to mitigate the impact of development. The design
should retain as much of the original terrain and character of the site as is
feasible. To achieve this, roads should be parallel to contours as much as
possible and buildings should be located to minimize grading. If such
flattened places are in short supply, perhaps the buildings could be
clustered and designed to take advantage of the site relief. Keep disturbed
areas small and leave strips of existing vegetation in place between
disturbed areas. Grading should be timed to minimize time of exposure
By minimizing
area thatrisk
is toofbe
disturbed,
runoff increases
the
and
scheduled the
to minimize
erosion
and maximize
growthand
conditions
facilities
to
restorenecessary
the site. to handle it can be reduced. The reduced runoff
translates immediately to a reduced risk of erosion but also to a smaller
requirement for storm water facilities. The areas of preserved vegetation
may act as adequate buffers between disturbed areas, reducing the amount
of active erosion and sediment protection required. Likewise less clearing
and grubbing translates to a greater degree of infiltration capacity. Although
some inconveniences may occur during construction, substantial cost
savings are involved with the reduction of disturbed area

ng Grade Change Effectively

Variations in grade can serve many purposes in site design. Beyond
providing wellthought-out transitions from one elevation to another,
grading may be used to reduce noise and to provide a visual separation
between features or adjacent properties. The separation provided by a
change in grade gives the illusion of a greater distance between objects
than may exist. Designers can use this perception of distance to increase
visual
interest berm
and to
create abuildings,
feeling offor
expansiveness.
A low planted
between
example, tends to give a feeling of
greater distance when viewed from inside either of the buildings. The berm
shown in Fig. 7.5 has effectively screened the residential area from an
adjacent highway. Even in areas with little natural relief, subtle combinations
of graded berms and vegetation can effectively separate incompatible uses
or undesirable views

ite Stabilization
There are two distinct types of stabilization on disturbed sites: temporary
stabilization and permanent stabilization. Temporary stabilization is used
on a portion of a site that has been disturbed and is to be left in a
disturbed state for some time prior to final grading and stabilization, such
as soil stockpiles or temporary access points. Temporary stabilization
could include vegetation, geotextile fabrics, and stone. These materials
are generally inexpensive to purchase, install, and remove. If an area is
to remain in a disturbed condition but with no further activity for more
than 20 days, temporary stabilization is called for. This guideline must be
tempered by local conditions, time of the year, and other relative
information.

lope Stability

The grading operation usually involves removing the vegetative cover, the
roots of which may serve to mechanically stabilize the slope. Any change in a
slope that increases the slope angle destabilizes the slope as it increases the
slope loading without increasing the strength of the slope. The weight of the
soil and the added weight of water increase the stress by increasing the load
on soil particles farther down the slope and, perhaps, compressing the lower
soils until failure occurs on projects requiring the creation of steep slopes, a
stability analysis should be performed by a soil scientist or soil engineer.
Slope failures can occur for a variety of reasonsboth natural and human .
Natural causes of failure include slippage along existing soil transitions or
failures associated with structural weaknesses.

etaining Walls
It is often not practical to reduce the
weight or location of features, so
increasing the slopes resistance to
failure may be necessary. Methods of
increasing slope resistance vary from
building retaining walls to stabilization
by thermal treatment (heating the soil
Although
new methods
to the melting
point). of chemical and
thermal treatment have emerged, these
methods are generally considered to be
experimental and have not been widely
used. The most widely used methods
are variations on retaining walls or
pilings such as the method shown in
Fig. 7.13 or the cantilevered reinforced
retaining wall shown in Fig. 7.14. New
methods include slope stabilization
using anchors, interlocking concrete
block walls (Figs. 7.15 and 7.16), and
stabilization using three-dimensional
geosynthetic materials (Figs. 7.17 and
7.18). Buttresses are sometimes used

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