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Universal gravitation
Gravity is a universal attraction between any two masses.

It is a relatively weak force, so we only tend to notice it when

one of the masses is very large, like the Earth or a star, but it
is also present on a tiny scale.

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Force between two masses

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Newtons third law
Newton reasoned that the gravitational pull exerted by a body
should be proportional to its mass.

F1 F2

F1 m1 F2 m2

But Newtons third law states that these forces are equal:

F1 = F2

So the force between the masses must be proportional to both.

Fgrav Fgrav
Fgrav m1m2

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Inverse square law of gravitation
Newton realised that the gravitational pull of the Earth on the
Moon must be the force that kept the Moon in orbit.
He compared the force that would be necessary to cause the
Moons approximately circular motion to the force of gravity at
the Earths surface.

He concluded that the gravitational

force between two bodies must fall m1 m2
Fgrav
off with the square of the distance r2
between their centres.

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Newtons law of gravitation
The full mathematical expression of Newtons law of universal
gravitation is:
G m1 m2
Fgrav =
r2

Where the constant of proportionality, G, is called the

gravitational constant:
G = 6.67 1011 N m2 kg2

Fgrav Fgrav

r
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Calculating gravitational forces

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Gravitational field lines
A gravitational field line is a line that indicates the direction
of the gravitational force that would act on a test mass
placed in the field.

test mass
A test mass is a
mass that is small
enough not to
affect the shape of field lines
the field with its
own gravity.

A gravitational field line is similar to an electric field line,

which points in the direction that a positive test charge would
move when placed in an electric field.

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Radial and uniform fields

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Gravitational field strength
Gravitational field strength, g, is defined as the gravitational
force per unit mass, so:
g = Fgrav / m

By considering the gravitational force on a small mass, m,

from a large mass, M, can you derive the following formula
for the gravitational field strength in a radial field? g = G M / r2
1. Start with the equation above: Fgrav = m g
2. Use the formula for the force between two point masses:
Fgrav = G m M / r2
3. Rearrange: m g = G m M / r2

4. Cancel m: g = G M / r2

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Mass, radius and gravitational field

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Gravitational fields vs. electric fields
You may have spotted some similarities between expressions
for gravitational forces and those for electrical forces:

field gravitational electrical

force law F = G m1 m2 / r2 F = k Q 1 Q 2 / r2

field strength g = F/m E = F/q

field strength g = G M / r2 E = k Q / r2

These similarities can be useful for remembering the formulae.

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Gravitational potential energy
When an object of mass m has its height changed by an
amount h, its gravitational potential energy (GPE)
changes by an amount E, where:
m
h
E = m g h

The object has E more

potential for motion, due
to being higher up in the
gravitational field.

The formula gives an energy change. To get an absolute

value, a reference point is needed. GPE is defined as being
zero at infinity, and measured from there.

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Measuring potential energy from infinity
Measuring relative to a zero potential energy at infinity, the
GPE of a mass m in the gravitational field of a mass M is:

Ep = G M m / r r

Ep is always negative, because work must be done to move

m towards infinity, against the attraction of the other mass.
The gravitational potential, V, at a point in a gravitational
field is the amount of GPE an object will have per unit mass:

V = Ep / m

What units does this equation give for V? J kg1

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Work done against gravity
Consider raising the height of an object with a mass m,
above a much larger mass, M, by h. In doing this you will
increase its gravitational potential energy. In order for this to
happen, you must do work on it.
Assuming no energy is lost: m
h
work done = GPE gained
W = Ep

W = m V

V is a change in gravitational
potential, which is called a
gravitational potential difference.

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Potential, GPE and work done

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Work done against gravity example
Q. How much work must be done to move a spacecraft of
mass 2000 kg (orbiting the Earth) from an orbit of radius
6.6 106 m to one of radius 6.7 106 km?
(G = 6.67 1011 N m2 kg2 ; ME = 6.0 1024 kg)

initial Ep = G M m / r1 final Ep = G M m / r2

work done = change in Ep

= (G M m / r2) (G M m / r1)
= G M m (1 / r1 1 / r2)
= 6.67 1011 6.0 1024 2000
(1 / 6.6 106 1 / 6.7 106)
work done = 1.81 109 J

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Fields and potentials: true or false?

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Gravitational field strength calculations

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Graphing gravitational potential
How does potential vary with radius in a radial field?

Combining V = Ep / m and Ep = G M m / r gives:

V = G M / r

So V is inversely proportional to r:
0 r
Gravitational potential is
always negative, so the
graph looks like a
normal inverse
relationship reflected in
V the horizontal axis.

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Graphing gravitational field strength
How does gravitational field strength vary with radius?

V is related to g by: g = V / r

So g is the gradient of a graph of V against r. What shape will

this graph be?
Field strength is also inversely proportional to radius.
0 r 0 r

V g

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What is a satellite?
A satellite is a body that circles around another body in
space. Moons, comets, asteroids, planets and stars are
examples of natural satellites.

Q. When might a star be called a satellite?

A star could be a satellite of another star in a binary system.
A star could be described as a satellite of the galactic centre.
When a planet appears to orbit a star, both star and planet
are actually orbiting their common centre of mass.
Our Moon is a natural satellite of the Earth. Artificial satellites
include the International Space Station (ISS) and the Hubble
Space Telescope (HST).

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Mass of the central object (1)
Consider two masses in orbit under each others gravity.
If one of the masses is a lot larger than the other, it stays
virtually at rest whilst the other orbits around it.
v
Newtons law of gravitation
allows us to calculate the
masses of stars.
r
To do this, consider a
small mass, m, moving in
a circular orbit around a
large mass, M.

Can you use what you know about circular motion to derive
the following expression for M? M = v2 r / G

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Mass of the central object (2)
For an object moving in a circle, the resultant force on it is
the centripetal force, given by:
v
F = m v2 / r
The centripetal force is F
provided by the gravitational
attraction on m from M:
r
Fgrav = G m M / r2
m v2 / r = G m M / r2

Cancel and rearrange:

M = v2 r / G

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Orbital period
The period of the satellites orbit, T, is the time it takes for
the satellite to make one complete circuit.
time = distance / speed
T = 2 r / v
Knowing that M = v2 r / G, v can be eliminated to give an
expression relating T, r and M:
v2 = G M / r
T2 = 42 r2 / v2
T2 = 42 r2 r / G M

T2 = ( 42
GM )r
3

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Keplers third law
It was Kepler who first established that the time period of an
orbit is proportional to the cube of its radius.
Keplers third law

T2 r3

Kepler derived his third law from

experimental data in around 1605.
There was no theory available at the
time to account for it.

It was Newton who was able to

Johannes Kepler derive the full expression, using his
15711630 theory of universal gravitation.

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Orbits equations

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Orbit calculations

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Geostationary satellites
Geostationary satellites orbit at a height of 36 000 km above
the equator. From this distance one satellite can transmit to
nearly half the Earths surface.

The satellite appears stationary from the Earths surface, so

satellite dishes do not have to be moved to remain pointing
at the satellite, and can pick up a signal 24 hours a day.
Geostationary satellites are useful for communications,
weather observation and satellite television.

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Glossary

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Whats the keyword?

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Multiple-choice quiz

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