Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Basic Principles of
Ultrasonic Testing

Theory and Practice

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Examples of oscillation
ball on pendulum rotating
a spring earth

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Pulse
The ball starts to oscillate as soon as it is pushed

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Oscillation

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Movement of the ball over time

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Frequency

Time

From the duration of one oscillation One full

T the frequency f (number of
oscillations per second) is
oscillation T
calculated: T
T

ff
11

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

The actual displacement a is

termed as:
sin
aa AAsin

a
Time
0 90 180 270 360
Phase

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Spectrum of sound
Frequency range Hz Description Example

0 - 20 Infrasound Earth quake

20 - 20.000 Audible sound Speech, music

> 20.000 Ultrasound Bat, Quartz crystal

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Atomic structures
gas liquid solid

low density medium density high density

weak bonding forces medium bonding strong bonding forces
forces crystallographic
structure

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Understanding wave propagation:

Ball = atom Spring = elastic bonding force

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

star
t of o
scil
T la tion

distance travelled

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

During one oscillation T the wave

T front propagates by the distance :

Distance travelled

From this we derive:

T
T

cc
or cc ff
Wave equation
Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems
Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Sound propagation

Longitudinal wave Direction of propagation

Direction of oscillation

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Sound propagation

Transverse wave
Direction of propagation
Direction of oscillation

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Wave propagation
Longitudinal waves propagate in all kind of materials.
Transverse waves only propagate in solid bodies.
Due to the different type of oscillation, transverse waves
travel at lower speeds.
Sound velocity mainly depends on the density and E-
modulus of the material.

Air 330 m/s

Water 1480 m/s
Steel, long 5920 m/s
Steel, trans
3250 m/s

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Reflection and Transmission

As soon as a sound wave comes to a change in material

characteristics ,e.g. the surface of a workpiece, or an internal
inclusion, wave propagation will change too:

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Behaviour at an interface

Medium 1 Medium 2

Incoming wave Transmitted wave

Reflected wave

Interface

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Reflection + Transmission: Perspex - Steel
1,87

Incoming wave 1,0 Transmitted wave

0,87

Reflected wave

Perspex Steel

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Reflection + Transmission: Steel - Perspex

Incoming wave Transmitted wave

1,0

0,13

-0,87
Reflected wave
Perspex Steel

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Amplitude of sound transmissions:

Water - Steel Copper - Steel Steel - Air

Strong reflection No reflection Strong reflection

Double transmission Single transmission with inverted phase
No transmission

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Piezoelectric Effect

+
Battery

Piezoelectrical
Crystal (Quartz)

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Piezoelectric Effect

The crystal gets thicker, due to a distortion of the crystal lattice

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Piezoelectric Effect

The effect inverses with polarity change

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Piezoelectric Effect

Sound wave
with
frequency f

U(f)

An alternating voltage generates crystal oscillations at the frequency f

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Piezoelectric Effect

Short pulse
( < 1 s )

A short voltage pulse generates an oscillation at the crystals resonant

frequency f0

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Reception of ultrasonic waves
A sound wave hitting a piezoelectric crystal, induces crystal
vibration which then causes electrical voltages at the crystal
surfaces.

Electrical Piezoelectrical
crystal Ultrasonic wave
energy

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Probes
socket Delay / protecting face
crystal Electrical matching
Damping Cable

Straight beam probe TR-probe Angle beam probe

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
RF signal (short)

100 ns

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
RF signal (medium)

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Sound field

Crystal Focus Angle of divergence

Accoustical axis
6
D0

N
Near field Far field

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Instrument

0 2 4 6 8 10

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Instrument

- +
Uh

0 2 4 6 8 10

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Instrument

+ -
Uh

0 2 4 6 8 10

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Instrument

+
Uv
-

+ -
Uh

0 2 4 6 8 10

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Block diagram: Ultrasonic Instrument

amplifier

screen
IP horizontal
BE sweep

clock

pulser
probe

work piece

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Sound reflection at a flaw

Probe
Sound travel path
Flaw

Work piece

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Plate testing

IP

BE

delamination 0 2 4 6 8 10
plate
IP = Initial pulse
F = Flaw
BE = Backwall echo

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Wall thickness measurement

s
s

Corrosion 0 2 4 6 8 10

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Through transmission testing

Through transmission signal

1 T R 1

2 T R 2
0 2 4 6 8 10

Flaw

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Weld inspection

a = s sin
F
a' = a - x = probe angle
s s = sound path
a = surface distance
d' = s cos a = reduced surface distance
d = virtual depth
0 20 40 60 80 100
d = 2T - t' d = actual depth
T = material thickness

a
x a'

d
Lack of fusion
Work piece with welding s

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Straight beam inspection techniques:
Direct contact, Direct contact,
Fixed delay
single element probe dual element probe

Through transmission Immersion testing

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Immersion testing

1 2
surface = water delay
sound entry

backwall flaw

IP 1 IP
IE IE 2

BE BE
F

0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems