Introduction of Material

Science & Engineering

Fundamentals of Materials Science & Engineering; An

Integrated approach, Callister, W. D, Jr, 2008, John Wiley & Sons
The sciene and engineering of materials, Donald R. Askeland,
Pradeep P Fulay., Wendelin J. Wright, 2010,
 Why study matrials?
applied scientists or engineers must make material choices
materials selection
in-service performance
deterioration
economics

BUTreally, everyone makes material choices!

 Materials Science and
Engineering
arrangement of internal components
structure subatomic
atomic
microscopic
macroscopic (bulk)

characterization
processing properties
material characteristic
method of
response to external
preparing material
stimulus
mechanical, electrical,
performance thermal, magnetic,
behavior in a optical, deteriorative
particular
application
Materials selection
The Materials Selection
Process
1. Pick Application Determine required Properties
Properties: mechanical, electrical, thermal,
magnetic, optical, deteriorative.

2. Properties Identify candidate Material(s)

Material: structure, composition.

3. Material Identify required Processing

Processing: changes structure and overall shape
ex: casting, sintering, vapor deposition, doping
forming, joining, annealing.

5
 Material properties
Six properties: mechanical,
electrical, thermal, magnetic,
optical, and deteriorative.
Mechanical properties relate
deformation to an applied load
or force; examples include
elastic modulus and strength.
Electrical properties, such as
electrical conductivity and
resistivity, the stimulus is an
electric eld.
Thermal behavior of solids can
be represented in terms of heat
capacity and thermal
conductivity.
 Magnetic properties
demonstrate the
response of a material to
the application of a
magnetic eld.
Optical properties, the
stimulus is
electromagnetic or light
radiation
Deteriorative
characteristics relate to
the chemical reactivity of
materials
 Organic, Inorganic & Biological
Materials
Organic materials
C compounds & their derivative, long chain
Chemically bonded with H, O & other metallic substances
through polymerisation
Resistance to corrosion, light, easy to fabrication, combustible
Plastic, rubber, waxe, petroleum etc.
Inorganic materials
Forms due to natural development
Metals, clay, minerals, ceramics etc.
Biological materials
Derived from living creature
Wood, bone, limestone, leather
 Classication of Materials
METALS CERAMIC & GLASS POLYMERS
good conductors of thermally and very large
electricity and heat electrically insulating molecules
lustrous resistant to high low density, low
appearance temperatures and harsh weight
susceptible to environments maybe extremely
corrosion hard, but brittle flexible
strong, but
deformable
 General properties of
Materials
Metals
Strong, ductile
High thermal & electrical conductivity
Opaque, reflective.

Polymers/plastics
Covalent bonding sharing of es
Soft, ductile, low strength, low density
Thermal & electrical insulators
Optically translucent or transparent.

Ceramics:
ionic bonding (refractory) compounds of metallic & non-
metallic elements (oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides)
Brittle, glassy, elastic
Non-conducting (insulators)
10
Classication of Materials Advanced
Materials
COMPOSITES
SEMICONDUCTORS
BIOMATERIALS consist of more
electrical properties
implanted in than one material
between conductors
human body type
compatible and insulators
designed to
Sensitive to
with body display a (+)
impurities
tissues combination of
electrical properties
properties of
can be precisely
each component
controlled

Intel Pentium 4

hip replacement

berglass surfboards
 Examine structure of material
at ve different levels:
1. macrostructure >100,000 nm (porosity, surface coatings,and such
features as internal or external micro-cracks
2. microstructure length-scale of ~10 to 1000 nm (grain size,
orientation, shape)
**A grain is a small crystal of the material within which the arrangement
of atoms and repeats in a particular fashion in all three dimensions.
3. Nanostructure length-scale 1100 nm
4. short- and long-range atomic arrangements; and
5. atomic structure atom arrangements which constitute the building
blocks of matter; understanding atomic structure and the bonding
congurations are essential for selection of engineering materials, as
well as for developing new, advanced materials.
 Atomic Structure
Each atom consists of a very small nucleus
composed of protons and neutrons, which is
encircled by moving electrons.
Both electrons and protons are electrically
charged, the charge magnitude being 1.60 10 -
19 C

negative in sign for electrons and positive for

protons, neutrons are electrically neutral;
For an electrically neutral or complete atom, the
atomic number also equals the number of
electrons the atom is electrically neutral.
Each chemical element is characterized by the
number of protons in the nucleus, or the
atomic number
iron atom has an atomic number of 26
contains 26 electrons and 26 protons
 Most of the mass of the atom is contained
within its nucleus.
protons and neutrons have approximately the
same mass, 1.67 10-27 kg, which is
signicantly larger than that of an electron,
9.11 10-31 kg
atomic mass (A or M) may be expressed as
the the average number of the masses of
protons and neutrons within the nucleus
 Electrons in atoms
Bohr atomic model
assumed electrons to revolve
around the atomic nucleus in
discrete orbitals
describe electrons in atoms in
terms of both position (electron
orbitals) and energy (quantized
energy levels)
An electron may change energy
by jumping either to an allowed
higher energy (with absorption of
energy) or to a lower energy (with
emission of energy).
 Wave mechanical model:
the smaller the principal quantum
number, the lower the energy
level (energy: a 1s << 2s state
<<3s)
within each shell, the energy of a
subshell level increases with the
value of the l quantum number.
(the energy: 3d >> 3p >> 3s)
there may be overlap in energy of
a state in one shell with states in
an adjacent shell, which is
especially true of d and f states
(energy:3d >> 4s)
 Electron conguration
electron conguration or structure the manner in
which an atom states are occupied
electron states: values of energy that are permitted for
electrons
Pauli exclusion principle: electron state can hold no more
than two electrons, which must have opposite spins.
Thus, s, p, d, and f subshells may each accommodate,
respectively, a total of 2, 6, 10, and 14 electrons
the electrons ll up the lowest possible energy states in the
electron shells and subshells, two electrons (having opposite
spins) per state.
When all the electrons occupy the lowest possible energies in
accord with the foregoing restrictions, an atom is said to be in
its ground state.
 valence
the number of electrons that occupy the
outermost shell, usually, in the s and p energy
levels.
The valence of an atom is the number of electrons
in an atom that participate in bonding or chemical
reactions
atoms have stable electron congurations when
the outermost or valence electron shell are
completely lled.
Normally this corresponds to the occupation of just
the s and p states for the outermost shell by a total
of eight electrons, as in neon, argon, and krypton,
exception is helium (two 1s electrons).
These elements are the inert & unreactive
chemically
Some atoms of the elements that have unlled
valence shells assume stable electron
congurations by gaining or losing electrons to form
charged ions, or by sharing electrons with other
atoms.
 Electropositive &
electronegative
electropositive elements they are capable of giving up their
few valence electrons to become positively charged ions
atom with nearly empty outer levelssuch as sodiumreadily give
up electrons and have low electronegativity.
Electronegative they readily accept electrons to form
negatively charged ions, or sometimes they share electrons with
other atoms.
Atoms are more likely to accept electrons if their outer shells are
almost full
Electronegativity (e greed) the tendency of an atom to gain an
electron; the power of atom to attract electrons to itself
Atoms with almost completely lled outer energy levelssuch as
chlorineare strongly electronegative and readily accept electrons.
As a general rule, electronegativity increases in moving from left to
right and from bottom to top.
 Atomic Bonding
The number of covalent bonds is determined by the number of
valence electrons
the degree of either bond type depends on the relative positions of
the constituent atoms in the periodic table or the difference in their
electronegativities
The wider the separation (both horizontally and vertically) from the
lower left to the upper-right-hand corner (i.e.,the greater the
difference in electronegativity) in general the more ionic the
bond.
Conversely, the closer the atoms are together (i.e., the smaller the
difference in electronegativity), the greater the degree of covalency.
If the electronegativity difference between them (x)is large
(indicating 1 element is greedier than other), e attracted to the
more electronegative element ion attract each other
In general x > 1.7 ionic
x < 1.7 covalent
IONIC BONDING
When one atom may donate its valence electrons to a different
atom, lling the outer energy shell of the second atom
Both atoms now have lled/emptied outer energy levels, but both
have acquired an electrical charge and behave as ions.
The atom that contributes the electrons is left with a net positive
charge and is called a cation, while the atom that accepts the
electrons acquires a net negative charge and is called an anion.
The oppositely charged ions are then attracted to one another
and produce the ionic bond.
 Occured by transfer electron;
form between very active metallic & non metallic elements
all the atoms acquire stable or inert gas congurations and,
in addition, an electrical charge
Atoms of a metallic element easily give up their valence
electrons to the nonmetallic atoms
to form AX ionic bonding, A loses e easily, X accepts e
without too much energy input
It follows that for ionic materials to be stable, all positive
ions must have as nearest neighbors negatively charged
ions in a three dimensional scheme, and vice versa
The predominant bonding in ceramic materials is ionic
High bonding energy is reected in high melting
temperatures.
COVALENT BONDING
the sharing of covalent bonding electrons between adjacent atoms.
Two atoms will each contribute at least one electron to the bond, and the shared
electrons may be considered to belong to both atoms.
forms when atoms have the same electronegativity energies of bonding
electrons of A & X are comparable
If the electron energy of the atoms is different transfer energy (ionic bonding)
Each instance of sharing represents one covalent bond
e.g: C atom, has four valence electrons, whereas each of the four hydrogen atoms
has a single valence electron; obtains eight electrons in its outer energy shell by
sharing its electrons with four surrounding H atoms each C atom is bonded to 4
neighboring atoms by 4 covalent bonds
Many nonmetallic elemental molecules (H2, Cl2, F2 etc) as well as molecules
containing dissimilar atoms, such as CH4,H2O, HNO3, and HF, are covalently