Neurophysiology

The Central Nervous System

 Nervous System
Functions
Sensory input monitoring stimuli occurring inside & outside the
body
Integration interpretation of sensory input
Motor output response to stimuli by activating effector organs

Figure 11.1
 Organization of the Nervous System
Central nervous system
(CNS)
Brain and spinal cord
Integration and
command center
Peripheral nervous
system (PNS)
Paired spinal and
cranial nerves
Carries messages to
and from the spinal
cord and brain
 Peripheral Nervous System: Afferent Division

Afferent (sensory) division

transmits impulses
from receptors to the
CNS.
Somatic afferent fibers
carry impulses from skin,
skeletal muscles, and
joints
Visceral afferent fibers
transmit impulses from
visceral organs
 Peripheral Nervous System: Efferent Division

Motor (efferent) division

transmits impulses from the
CNS to effector organs. Two
subdivisions:
Somatic nervous system
provides conscious control
of skeletal muscles
Autonomic nervous system
regulates smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle, and glands
 Sensory
General somatic senses receptors are widely spread
Touch
Pain
Vibration
Pressure
Temperature
Proprioceptive senses detect stretch in tendons and muscle
Body sense position and movement of body in space
Special somatic senses
Hearing
Balance
Vision
Smell
Visceral sensory
General visceral senses stretch, pain, temperature, nausea, and hunger
Widely felt in digestive and urinary tracts, and reproductive organs
Special visceral senses - taste
 Motor
General somatic motor signals contraction of skeletal
muscles
Under our voluntary control
Often called voluntary nervous system
Visceral motor
Regulates the contraction of smooth and cardiac muscle
Makes up autonomic nervous system
Controls function of visceral organs
Often called involuntary nervous system
Autonomic nervous system
Central Nervous
System:

Brain
Spinal cord
Organization of the Nervous System

Figure 8-1: Organization of the nervous system

 Nerve Tissue

The two principal cell types of the

nervous system are:
Neurons excitable cells that transmit
electrical signals
Neuroglia - supporting cells
 Neuron Classification
Functional:
Sensory (afferent) transmit impulses toward the CNS
Motor (efferent) carry impulses away from the CNS
Interneurons (association neurons) shuttle signals through CNS
pathways
Neuroglia

Figure 12.6
 CNS Protection
Hair, skin, cranium
Meninges
Cerebrospinal fluid
Blood brain barrier
 Meningeal Layers
Meningeal layer of the brain cushion
and protect delicate neural tissue

Figure 9-4b
 Cerebrospinal Fluid
Shock absorbing
medium
Provides a optimum
and stable
environment for
generating nerve
impulses
Provides a medium for
the exchange of
nutrients and wastes
between blood and
nervous tissue
 Cerebrospinal Fluid
Formed by selective transport across ependymal cells
Volume 125-150 ml and is replaced > 3 times/day, flow
maintained by 10 mmHg pressure gradient
Path: ventricles subarachnoid space, reabsorbed into blood
in dural sinuses through arachnoid villi
 Blood Brain Barrier
Extensive capillaries & sinuses
Tight junctions promoted by astrocyte
Limits permeability for most molecules except O2, CO2, alcohol, steroids,
H2O
Protects brain: hormones & circulating chemicals
Protects CNS from chemical fluctuations
Prevents entry of harmful substances
Prevents entry of molecules that could act as neurotransmitters
Brain receives 15% of blood pumped by heart
Brain responsible for about half of bodys glucose consumption
Membrane transporters move glucose from plasma into the brain
interstitial fluid

Figure 9-6: The blood-brain barrier

 Brain Organization
Trillion interneurons fill the brain
Up to 200,000 synapses each
Levels of complexity
Cerebral cortex
Basal nuclei
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Cerebellum
Brain stem
 Brain component

Cerebral cortex
Cerebral cortex

Basal nuclei
(lateral to thalamus)
Basal nuclei

Thalamus
(medial) Thalamus

Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
Cerebellum
Cerebellum

Midbrain
Brain stem
Brain stem Pons (midbrain, pons,
and medulla)
Medulla Spinal cord
 Major Functions
Brain component

1. Sensory perception
Cerebral cortex 2. Voluntary control of movement
3. Language
4. Personality traits
5. Sophisticated mental events, such as thinking memory,
decision making, creativity, and self-consciousness

Basal nuclei 1. Inhibition of muscle tone

2. Coordination of slow, sustained movements
3. Suppression of useless patterns of movements

Thalamus 1. Relay station for all synaptic input

2. Crude awareness of sensation
3. Some degree of consciousness
4. Role in motor control

Hypothalamus 1. Regulation of many homeostatic functions, such as temperature

control, thirst, urine output, and food intake
2. Important link between nervous and endocrine systems
3. Extensive involvement with emotion and basic behavioral patterns
1. Maintenance of balance
Cerebellum
2. Enhancement of muscle tone
3. Coordination and planning of skilled voluntary muscle activity

Brain stem 1. Origin of majority of peripheral cranial nerves

(midbrain, pons, 2. Cardiovascular, respiratory, and digestive control centers
and medulla) 3. Regulation of muscle reflexes involved with equilibrium and posture
4. Reception and integration of all synaptic input from spinal cord;
arousal and activation of cerebral cortex
5. Role in sleep-wake cycle
Brain Overview
 Cerebrum
Highly developed
Makes up about 80% of total brain weight
(largest portion of brain)
Inner core houses basal nuclei
Outer surface is highly convoluted cerebral
cortex
Highest, most complex integrating area of the brain
Plays key role in most sophisticated neural functions
 Cerebral Cortex
Three specializations
Sensory areas - sensory input translated into perception
Motor areas - direct skeletal muscle movement
Association areas - integrate information from sensory and
motor areas, can direct voluntary behaviors
 Cerebral Cortex
Each half of cortex divided into four major lobes
Occipital lobe - carries out initial processing of visual input
Temporal lobe - initial reception of sound sensation, taste, smell
Parietal lobe - somatosensory processing
Frontal lobe responsible for
Voluntary motor activity
Speaking ability
Elaboration of thought
 Primary Somatosensory Cortex
Located in the postcentral
gyrus, this area:
Receives information from
the skin and skeletal
muscles
Exhibits spatial
discrimination
Somatosensory homunculus
caricature of relative
amounts of cortical tissue
devoted to each sensory
function
 Primary Motor Cortex
Located in the precentral
gyrus
Composed of pyramidal
cells whose axons make up
the corticospinal tracts
Allows conscious control of
precise, skilled, voluntary
movements
Motor homunculus
caricature of relative
amounts of cortical tissue
devoted to each motor
function
 Language
Primary areas of cortical specialization for language
Brocas area governs speaking ability
Wernickes area
Concerned with language comprehension
Responsible for formulating coherent patterns of speech

Figure 9-23: Cerebral processing of spoken and visual language

Functional Areas of the Cerebral Cortex

Figure 9-15
Brain Function: Cerebral Lateralization
Each lobe has special functions

Figure 9-16
 Cerebral Cortex

Schematic Linking of
Various Regions of the
Cortex
 Basal Nuclei
Act by modifying ongoing
activity in motor pathways
Primary functions
Regulates muscle tone
throughout the body
Selecting and maintaining
purposeful motor activity while
suppressing useless or
unwanted patterns of
movement
Helping monitor and
coordinate slow, sustained
contractions, especially those
related to posture and support
Controls large automatic
movement
Thalamus
Final relay point for
ascending sensory
information
Coordinates the
activities of the
cerebral cortex and
basal nuclei
Domain-specific
information
processing

http://www.driesen.com/diencephalon.htm
 Hypothalamus
Receives indirect sensory
inputs from all sensory
systems
Sends neural outputs to
various motor control
nuclei
Sends neural outputs to
sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous
systems
Sends both neural and
hormonal outputs to
pituitary
 Hypothalamus
Controls somatic motor activities at the subconscious
level
Controls autonomic function
Coordinates activities of the endocrine and nervous
systems
Secretes hormones
Produces emotions and behavioral drives
Coordinates voluntary and autonomic functions
Regulates body temperature
Coordinates circadian cycles of activity
4Fs: feeding, fighting, fleeing, and reproductive behavior
 Limbic System
Cingulated gyrus
Coordinates sensory input with
emotions
Emotional responses to pain
Basic, inborn behavioral patterns
related to survival and perpetuation
of the species
Regulates aggressive behavior
Hippocampus - sends memories out to
the appropriate part of the cerebral
hemisphere for long-term storage and
retrieving them when necessary, Plays
important role in motivation and
learning
Amygdala - involved in emotional
responses, hormonal secretions, and
memory,
 Cerebellum
Basic functions: coordination, balance, motor learning, etc.
Vestibulocerebellum balance and control of eye movement
Spinocerebellum enhances muscle tone and coordinates skilled
voluntary movement important in synchronization and timing
Receives input concerning desired action from motor cortex
Receives feedback concerning actual action from proprioceptors, vestibular
apparatus, eyes
Compares inputs and sends adjustments or corrective signals to motor tracts
Cerebrocerebellum planning and initiation of voluntary activity by
providing input to the cortical motor areas also involved in procedural
memories
 Brain Stem: Midbrain, Pons & Medulla
An important link between spinal cord and higher brain levels, relays motor and
sensory impulses between other higher parts of the brain and spinal cord
Midbrain eye movement control
Pons/Medulla
Signal relay
Involuntary functions
Many cranial nerves enter
Pyramids nerve tracts crossover
Cranial Nerves

Table 9-1: The Cranial Nerves

 Pons
Sensory and motor nuclei for four cranial nerves
Nuclei that help control respiration
Nuclei and tracts linking the cerebellum with the
brain stem, cerebrum and spinal cord
 Medulla oblongata
Contains relay stations and reflex centers
Cardiovascular and respiratory rhythmicity centers
Cardiovascular center - regulates rate and force of heartbeat
and vasoconstriction/dilation
Respiratory center - regulates basic breathing rhythm
Reticular formation begins in the medulla oblongata and
extends into more superior portions of the brainstem
 Reticular Activating System
Network in brain stem
Arousal, sleep, pain, &
muscle tone
Ascending fiber sends
signals upward
Arouses and activates
cerebral cortex
Controls overall degree
of cortical alertness or
level of consciousness:
maximum alertness
wakefulness
sleep
coma
ElectroEncephaloGram -EEG
Records electrical activity within
cerebral cortex from EPSP, IPSPs
Used for
Diagnose cerebral dysfunction
Brain death
Sleep Patterns
Consciousness - Sleep
 Functions of Sleep
Catch up time restore biochemical
and physiological processes
Role of adenosine
Increased levels while awake
Inactivates RAS
Caffeine blocks adenosine receptors
Shift gears long term structural and
chemical changes required to
consolidate memory and learning
 Learning and Memory
Learning has two broad types
Associative conditioning, linking two events
together
Nonassociative
Habituation
Sensitization
Memory has several types
Short-term and long-term
Reflexive and declarative
 Memory
Storage of acquired knowledge for later recall
Memory trace - Neural change responsible for retention or storage of
knowledge
Short-term memory - Lasts for seconds to hours
Long-term memory - Retained for days to years
Consolidation - Process of transferring and fixing short-term memory traces
into long-term memory stores
Working memory - Temporarily holds and interrelates various pieces of
information relevant to a current mental task
Long-Term vs Short-Term Memory
 Short Term Memory
Seconds to hours
Limited capacity
Rapid retrieval
Synaptic alterations
Changes in ion channels
Presynaptic facilitation cAMP
Long term potentiation (LTP)
 Basic Learning - Behavior
Habituation decreased responsiveness to
stimulus
1. Closure of Ca++ channels leads
2. Reduced neurotransmitter release
3. Decrease EPSP
Sensitization increase responsiveness
1. Release of serotonin from interneuron
2. Increases cAMP in presynaptic neuron
3. Blocks K+ channels and prolongs AP
4. Ca++ channels are open longer
5. Increasing neurotransmitter output
 LTP
Glutamate acts as NT, binds to:
AMPA receptors elicit EPSPs
NMDA receptors open Ca++ channels > 2nd messenger system
Increases # of AMPA receptors / releases nitric oxide (NO)
NO causes presynaptic neuron to increase neurotransmitter release
 Long Term Memory
Last days to years
Unlimited capacity
Permanent structural changes
Formation of new synapses between
existing neurons
Increased dendritic surface area
Increase in neurotransmitter receptors
Changes in neurotransmitter synthesis
 Long Term Memory
Consolidation is affected by:
Amount of rehearsal
Association of new & old data
Level of excitement/importance of information
CREB regulatory proteins that activate genes important in
long term memory storage
 Memory Processing
Hippocampus (limbic system)
Short term memory and consolidation
Declarative memory (facts), specific objects
Requires conscious recall
Cerebellum how to memories
Motor skills (procedural)
Subconscious recall
Prefrontal cortex - working memory
Processes new and retrieved information
Temporary storage
Problem solving, planning, organizing
 Spinal Cord Regions

Cervical
Thoracic
Lumbar
Sacral

Figure 9-4a: ANATOMY SUMMARY: The Central Nervous System

 Spinal Cord Organization
Gray matter: mostly cell bodies
Dendrites & terminals
Spinal reflex integrating center
White matter
Bundles of myelinated axons
Ascending tracts sensory
Descending tracts motor
Dorsal roots
Ventral roots
Spinal Cord Organization

Figure 9-7: Specialization in the spinal cord

Spinal Cord: Integrating Center

Figure 9-8
Neural Reflexes: Overview
Stimulus
Sensory receptor
Sensory (afferent) neuron
CNS integration
Efferent (motor) neuron
Effector (target tissue)
Response (movement)
Feedback to CNS
Neural Reflex

Figure 13-1: Monosynaptic and polysynaptic somatic motor reflexes

 Patellar Tendon Reflex:
Stretch & Reciprocal Inhibition

Figure 13-7: The knee jerk reflex

 Cross Extensor
Reflex/Withdrawal Reflex

Figure 13-8: Flexion reflex and the crossed extensor reflex