RADIOGRAPHY

What are the types of

radiation emitted by
isotopes?

There are three types of radiation as:

A. Alpha particle - Particle.
B. Beta particles - Particle.
C. Gamma - Ray.
 What is the charges on Alpha particle, Beta particles
particle and
Gamma ray & compare their relative penetration?
Charges on radiation are: -
A. Alpha particle particle) : -
Positive charge & less penetrating in comparison to
particle &
Ray. They can be stopped by a thin sheet of paper.
B. Beta particles - particle) : -
Negative charge & have definite range of penetration.
Easily
absorbed in the matter.
C. Gamma ray: -
No charge & highly penetrating.
Gamma ray source
 Iridium 192

Iridium 192

Produced byneutronbombardment of Iridium191.The

radioisotope disintegrates toplatinum192
andOsmium192 andgives out beta particle
andmedium energygamma rays.Itsrelatively lower
energy radiation,high specific activityand reasonable
activation time combine to make it an easily shielded
powerful radiation source of small physical size.This
isthemost used radioisotope. It is available
asencapsulatedmetallic pelletsin medium weight,
depleted uraniumshielded,remotelyoperated portable
projectors
 Iridium 192
Iridium 192 properties :
Half life : 74 Days.
Energy:206
to612kev.Avgenergy :400kev.
Equivalent to 600 kev X-rays.RHM :
470 mR / hr /Ci at1meter distance.
Suitable for radiographyof6
to75mm Steel.
Iridium 192
 Cobalt 60

Produced by neutron bombardment of Nickel plated Cobalt

59pellets.The radioisotope disintegratesto Nickel 60and
emits abet particle and high energygamma
rays.Havealong halflife,and takesalongtimetoactivate
[3years]Because of its higher energy, the isotope is
suitable only for thick sections.However,Itcanbeused
forradiography of Steel,Copper andother mediumweight
metals of thicknessranging from25mmto 200 mm.This
isotope is preferredfor radiographyof steel above50
mmfor shorter exposure time.The contrast of
theradiographic images poor when compared to iridiumand
more difficult tointerpret.High-energy ofradiation
requiresheavy shielding.Cobalt 60 equipments are
veryheavy,costly and less mobile
 Cobalt 60

Half life : 5.27 Years.

Energy : 1.17 and 1.33 mev.
Avgenergy : 1200kev.
Equivalent to 2 mev X-rays.
RHM : 1.32R / hr / Ci at 1 meter
distance.
Suitable forradiographyof35 to
200mm Steel or equivalent.
Optimum resultin Steel 60 to
150mm
 Thulium 170
Thulium is an expensiverare earthelement.Thulium170is produced
by neutron bombardmentof thulium169.
The radioisotopedecays to ytterbium170by emitting two
betaparticles[ 0.968, 0.884 mev ] and two gamma rays [0.084,
0.052 mev ].
ItIsalowenergy radioisotope,useful forradiography of lower atomic
number or low thicknessmedium atomic numbermaterials.
With small physical source size and a thin specimen the radiographic
image is produced by thegamma and x rays[generated by
theabsorbtion ofhighenergy beta particles ofpeak energy
0.9Mev,in the test specimen] and theradiograph will
begood.Forlarger source size and thicker specimen the low energy
gamma rays are absorbed and the radiograph is produced bythe x
rays only with a resultant lossof image quality.
Result insteel above10mmthicknessispoor.
Containers ofthese sources are verysmall and lightweight.
 Thulium 170
Half life : 128.6 days.
Energy: 52,
84kevgammaraysand.91 mev beta
particle.
Equivalent to 150 kev X-rays.
RHM : 3mR / hr/ Ciat 1meter
distance.
Suitable for radiographyof2
to12mm SteeL
 Selenium75
Selenium -75 is nowgenerally
acknowledgedthroughout the worldto
provide performance benefits
relativetoIridium-192 in the working range
of 5-30 mmsteel.
Selenium-75 hasa softergamma ray
spectrum than Iridium-192
andithasasignificantlylonger half-life. The
isotopes are produced in ceramic pellets and
suitable lighter weight projectors are
available
 Selenium75
Halflife:120days.
Energy : 66 to 401 kev.
RHM : 203 mR / hr / Ci at 1 meter.
Suitable forradiographyof10 to
40mm
 Processing steps:
Developing:Exposed films are locked in stainless steel
hangers, and immersed in the developer for 5 minutes at
20C
Immediately after immersion the hangers are tapped to
dislodge air bubbles clinging to the
surfaceofthefilms.The developer is then agitatedly
shaking the hangers for 10seconds in everyminute to
maintain uniformdeveloping action.Continuousagitation
significantly reduces developing time.Developingtime
depends on solution temperature andconcentration and
must becorrectedas required.By temperature control
andreplenishment of thedeveloper,constant developing
time can be maintained.
 Stop bath
Stop bath :developer solution is
alkaline where as fixer is acidic.
Hence developed films are washed in
2% acetic acid solution or water to
remove traces of developer
remaining on the films before they
are immersed in the fixer solution.
 Fixing
Fixing:The films are immersed in the
fixer solution to make the developed
image stable by removing unexposed
silver halide grains by
fixingaction.Recommended
fixingtime is twicetheclearing time
and films can be left in the fixerfor
up to 15minutes
 Washing
Washing :following fixing, the films
are washed in running water
for15minutes to remove all
tracesoffixerfrom thesurface.
Washing time canbereduced
byusing suitable
chemicals.Improperlywashed films
become brown with age
 Removing watermarks
Removing watermarks:Water
droplets remaining on the surface of
the films afterwashing canbe
removed by dipping the films in a
wetting agent solution before drying.
Drying :Films are finally dried
uniformly by evaporation or by
circulating hot air in a temperature
controlled drying cabinet.
 What are the ingredients of
Developer?
Developing Agent: - Metal,
Hydroquinone and Pencil one.
Accelerator: - Sodium carbonate.
Restrainer: - Potassium Bromated.
Preservative: - Sodium Sulphate.
 How the Radiographic films are
classified Film types ?

The Radiographic films are classified as: -

Class I : - Highest contrast, Lowest
speed.
Class II : - High contrast, Low speed.
Class III : - Medium contrast, Medium
speed.
Class IV : - Low contrast, High speed.
 What is the basis of classification of
radiographic film?

Classification of Radiographic film is

done on the basis of grain size of
Silver Bromide (Silver Bromide
Crystals).
Finer the grain size of Silver Bromide
in emulsion, slower will be the speed.
Generally used crystal size is 0.22,
0.52, 0.68, 0.80 and 1 micron.
 radiographic film
D2 / R2 :Low speed, high contrast, extremely fine grain for excellent
image sharpness,can be used with or without lead screen. Suitable for
thin-wall steel, lower densitymaterials, plastics, composites etc.
D4 / R4 :Mediumspeed, high contrast, extremely fine grain for good
image quality, can be used with or withoutleadscreen.Suitablefor
thin-wallsteel
,D5 / R5 :Standard speed, highcontrast, veryfine grain for good image
quality, can be used with or withoutlead screen.Forthin /
mediumthicksteel.
D7 / R7 :Higher speed, high contrast, fine grain, can beused with or
without lead screen. Suitable for thicker parts with gamma and thinner
with x -rays. This isthe most used film for commonapplications.
D8 / R8 :Veryhigh speed, high contrast,medium grain, can be used
with or without lead screen. Suitable for thick steel, castparts
withnon uniform thickness etc.
D10 / R10 :Veryhigh speed,medium contrast, mediumgrain,can be
used with or without lead screen. Suitable for thick steel, parts with
non uniform thickness

Imagequalityindicators[IQI]

Commonly used IQI are: -

A. Wire type Pentameter.
B. Plate type Pentameter.
C. Step type Pentameter.
D. Step- Hole type
Pentameter
CD-7-RT-R write V1.1.exe
 IQI
Pentameter should be made of same material as that
of the specimen.
The selection of IQI should be made as: -
For carbon Steel & Low Alloy Steel : -Carbon Steel IQI.
For High Alloy Steel & Stainless Steel: -Stainless Steel
IQI.
For Aluminum & Aluminum Alloy: -Aluminum IQI.
Copper & copper Alloy: - Copper IQI.

Name some IQI?

Wire types IQI : - 1-ISO-7, 6-ISO-12,10-ISO-16

 Different types of Radiography
techniques are:
A. Single wall single image
(Panoramic Exposure).
B. Double wall single image.
C. Double wall double image