All chemical reactions involve the breaking

of old bonds and formation of new bonds

in the products.
Breaking of bonds- absorb energy
Formation of bonds- release energy

ENERGY CHANGE=TOTAL ENERGY ABSORBED - TOTAL ENERGY RELEASED

 The most stable state is where all energy has
been released. When going to a more stable
state, energy will be released, and when going to
a less stable state, energy will be gained (from
the surroundings).

On an enthalpy level diagram, higher positions

will be less stable (with more internal energy)
therefore, if the product is lower, heat is released
(more stable, H is -ve) but if it is higher, heat is
gained (less stable, H is +ve).
 Formation of bonds causes
an energy release
(exothermic).

Breaking of bonds requires

energy (endothermic).
 Change in energy = mass x specific
heat capacity x change in temperature
E = m x c x T

where m is the mass of water present

(kilograms), and c = 4.18 kJ Kg-1 K-1.
Hess' Law states that the total enthalpy
change between given reactants and
products is that same regardless of any
intermediate steps (or the reaction
pathway).
Example: Calculate the enthalpy of
formation of methane.

Example 1:

Data:
H combustion (carbon) = -394kj
H combustion (hydrogen) =-242kj
Hcombustion (methane) =-891kj
If Hf methane is represented by the equation:
C(s) + H2(g) CH4 (g)
This equation can be constructed using the equations for combustion
of the reactants (carbon and hydrogen) and the product (methane)
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) -394k..enthalpy 1

H2(g) + O2(g) H2O(l) -242kj..enthalpy 2

multiply this equation by 2 to get
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l) -484kj .enthalpy 3

Add the first and third equation together to get:

C(s) +2O2(g) +2H2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) -878kj
enthalpy (1 + 3) = 4

Now take away the eq for the combustion of methane

CH4 (g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) -891kj enthalpy 5

And after rearrangement ( take the CH4 to the right hand side) the
result is the equation for the formation of methane
C(s) + H2(g) CH4 (g) +13kj enthalpy ( 4 - 5)
Example 1
Monoclinic sulphur is formed in volcanic regions by reaction between sulphur
dioxide and hydrogen sulphide according to the equation:
SO2 + 2H2S --> 2H2O + 3S
Draw an enthalpy diagram or cycle and calculate the standard enthalpy change for this
reaction.
Here are some values.
Standard enthalpy of formation (all in kJ)
H2O(l) -286
H2S(g) - 20.2
Standard enthalpy of combustion of S (monoclinic) = -297.2kJ

equation 1: H2 + O2 --> H2O -286 kJ

equation 2: H2 + S --> H2S -20.2kJ
equation 3: S + O2 --> SO2 -297.2 kJ

multiply E2 by 2 (equation 4) H2 + 2S --> 2H2S -40.4 kJ

add equation 3 & 4... 2H2 + 3S + O2 --> SO2 + 2H2S -337.6 kJ
multiply E1 by 3(equation 5) 2H2 + O2 --> 2H2O -572 kJ
subtract 4 from 5-3S ---> 2H2O - SO2 - 2H2S -234.4 kJ

rearrange
SO2 + 2H2S --> 2H2O + 3S -234.4 kJ
 Born Haber cycles are the application of
Hess' law to ionic systems. An ionic solid
consists of a giant structure of ions held
together in a giant lattice.
Application of Hess law tells us that the
enthalpy of formation of an ionic crystal is
equal to the sum of the energies of
formation of the ions plus the enthalpy of
the lattice.
it is a several step process that is best
represented by a diagram showing the
individual steps as endothermic
upwards and exothermic downwards.