Slide 3.

Figure 4.1 A group of cells, the blood supply and surrounding fluid
Source: Adapted from Toates (2007, Fig. 4.1b, p. 33)

Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.2

Concentration differences between extracellular and intracellular fluid

Figure 4.2
(concentration in arbitrary units)
Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.3

Hanging spheres: (a) no charge, (b) charges of same sign and (c) charges
Figure 4.3
of opposite sign
Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.4

Figure 4.4 Ions in solution: (a) initially and (b) after distribution

Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.5

Figure 4.5 Comparison between (a) a cell and (b) a battery

Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.6

Ion movements across a cell membrane: (a) in response to voltage and

Figure 4.6
concentration gradients and (b) representation that includes the role of pumps
Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.7

A series of action potentials, with one enlarged. (Note the different baselines
Figure 4.7
in the two traces.)
Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.8

Tip of a sensory neuron: (a) resting condition with sodium channels almost
Figure 4.8
closed (indicated by almost closed doors) and (b) deformation at tip as a result of
tactile stimulus (arrow), triggering local sodium channels to open
Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.9

Analogy to the start of the action potential: (a) equilibrium, (b) slight
Figure 4.9
disturbance and (c) unstable disturbance
Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.10

Figure 4.10 An action potential moving along an axon

Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.11

A snapshot of a region of axon undergoing an action potential: (a) voltage

Figure 4.11
change (i.e. disturbance from resting voltage) and (b) events at the sodium channels

Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.12

Different frequencies of action potentials in an axon as a function of

Figure 4.12
increasing intensity of stimulation (S): (a) S1, (b) S2, (c) S3 and (d) S4
Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.13

Figure 4.14 Myelination: (a) unmyelinated axon and (b) myelinated axon

Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.14

Neuron terminal showing neurotransmitter in vesicles: (a) unstimulated, (b)

Figure 4.16
arrival of action potential and fusion of vesicles with presynaptic membrane and (c)
reformation of membrane and occupation of receptors with transmitter
Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.15

Figure 4.17 Serotonergic neuron with receptors for GABA and acetylcholine

Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.16

Colocalization: (a) co-release, (b) separate release as a function of the

Figure 4.18
frequency of action potentials and (c) different transmitters stored and released at
different locations in the presynaptic neuron
Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.17

Neuron 3 showing location of the axon hillock, an excitatory postsynaptic

Figure 4.19
potential (EPSP) at synapse 1 and its effect at the axon hillock
Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.18

The effect at the axon hillock of two excitatory postsynaptic potentials at

Figure 4.20
times T1 and T2: (a) apart in time, so that summation does not occur and (b) closer
in time, so that summation occurs
Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.19

Figure 4.21 Excitatory (EPSP) and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSP)

Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.20

Figure 4.22(a) Neuron 3 with two excitatory inputs (E; 1 and 2) and one inhibitory input
(I; 4). (b) Effects of action potentials arriving in sequence at each of the three inputs,
as measured at the axon hillock. (c) Integration of effects at the axon hillock when
they occur simultaneously
Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.21

Figure 4.23 Avoidance of cross-talk

Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.22

Balance of factors at the neuromuscular junction during a sustained effort.

Figure 4.24
The rate of release of transmitter (1) equals rate of removal (2)
Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.23

How transmitter is removed from the synaptic cleft: (a) enzymatic

Figure 4.25
breakdown and (b) reuptake
Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.24

Figure 4.26 (a) Classical neurotransmission and (b) a second messenger system

Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.25

Figure 4.27 Synapses: (a) chemical and (b) electrical

Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.26

Agonists and antagonists: (a) normal situation, (b) addition of agonist and
Figure 4.28
(c) addition of antagonist
Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.27

Dopamine exemplifying a neurochemical and subtypes of receptor:

Figure 4.29
(a) natural situation and (b) addition of artificial chemicals that target only a subtype
of receptor (either D1 or D2)
Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.28

The action of a drug on blocking reuptake: (a) without drug and (b) in the
Figure 4.30
presence of drug
Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011
Slide 3.29

A drug that targets a natural neurotransmitter and the side effect of a

Figure 4.31
metabolite on noradrenergic synapses: (a) without and (b) with the drug present
Frederick Toates, Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Limited 2011