Chantelle Allen

Candice Beckford
Group Yamalou Gombele
Jod Hylton
1 Tiffany Maragh
Damika Archer
 Objectives
HEALTH AND DISEASE
1.1: Discuss the meaning of the term health;
1.2: Explain the categories of disease or illness;
1.3: Discuss reasons for the regional distribution of Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome (AIDS), diabetes and cancer;
1.4: Analyze data involving incidence and mortality rates of disease.
 Health
According to The World Health Organization (WHO) Health is a
state of complete physical, mental and social well being and not
merely the absence of disease or infirmity .
 Categories of diseases
1. Physical 2. Mental
3. Social 4.Chronic
5. Infectious 6.Degenerate
7. Inherited 8. Self inflicted
9. Deficiency
 Physical
A physical disease is any disease which causes temporary or
permanent damage to the body which are of organic causes
(can be found within the body).
This category also incorporates social, chronic, infectious,
degenerative, inherited, self inflicted , deficiency and few
forms of mental disease which was cause due to brain
damage.
Example: Cancer, Diabetes, Parkinsons disease and
pneumonia
 Mental
Mental disease is classified as a disease which affects a person
on the psychological level such as emotional and personality
disorders, eating disorders and addictive behaviors.
Mood, thinking and behavior
Example: Schizophrenia, Senile dementia and depression
Note: Some mental disorders may contribute or accompany
physical disease or diseases.
 SOCIAL
Social diseases are those which are strongly associated
with ones lifestyle choices, living conditions, social
events and economic factors.
Example: Poor housing or sanitation can greatly increase
the risk of developing infectious diseases such as
tuberculosis.
 CHRONIC
A Chronic disease is usually a condition that lasts an extensive period
of a persons lifetime that can get worse over a period of time.
Most chronic diseases can only be managed and not cured
Most can shorten a persons life expectancy or make it very
debilitating
Can not be prevented by vaccine or cured by medication
Example: A person who smokes cigarettes regularly may develop
bronchitis which never really clears up instead it stay with them
throughout the rest of their lives
 INFECTIOUS
(Communicable/Contagious/ Transmissible)
Infectious diseases are those which can be passed on from organism to other via a pathogens (Eg:
bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, protozoans, protists, worms, insects, rickettsiae, micro plasms)
Some require vectors in order to carry the pathogen from host to host.
These pathogens can be transmitted via:
1. Water 2.Food
3.Airbourne droplets 4.Direct contact
5.Dust particles 6.Contact with feces
7.Animal (vectors) 8.Fomites (indirect contact stuff an infected person has
touched)
 DEGENERATE
Degenerate disease are those which cause gradual lose of function of
organ(s) as a result of deterioration of cells which the body unable to
repair including an immune system attack on the body.
These begin to occur as we age as the bodys repair mechanism slows
down but there are numerous case of these diseases occurring in young
persons.
Three main categories of degenerate diseases:
1. skeletal, muscular and nervous system
2. Cardiovascular diseases of the circulatory system
3. Cancers
.Example: Ageing of the joint and bone tissues often leads to arthritis.
 INHERITED (Genetic and congenital)
Inherited diseases are those which are caused from the parents of an
offspring passing on faulty chromosome(s) or mutated gene(s) which
causes the body to respond in an unusual manner.
Example: Sickle Cell Anaemia
 Deficiency
Deficiency diseases are as a result of the body lacking in one or more
vital nutrients, vitamins or minerals.
Example: A lack of Vitamin C can lead to scurvy, due not the
insufficient amount of collagen that can be made in the body.
 SELF INFLICTED
Selfinflicted diseases are disorders that a person brings on
themselves based on their choices about their lifestyle.
Example; A person who misuses alcohol can lead themselves into
developing cirrhosis of the liver and brain damage.
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
(AIDS)
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)

The biology of the virus

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
KEY TERMS
Retrovirus: any of a group of RNA viruses which insert a DNA copy
of their genome into the host cell in order to replicate,
Opportunistic infections: these are organisms that would not
normally be able to attack but when the immune system is weaken
they are now able to attack and infect the person.
 Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
The Biology of the Virus
1. The HIV virus enters the body of an unaffected person via body fluids of an infected person
2. Virus approaches helper T- lymphocytes
3. Glycoprotein of virus attaches to a CD4 receptor of the T-lymphocytes
4. The t-lymphocyte engulfs the virus
5. The viral RNA as well the viral enzymes are released into the T-lymphocyte
6. The viral reverse transcriptase enzyme bind with the viral RNA to produce a segment of DNA . (This
degrades the viral RNA strand)
7. The viral reverse transcriptase then binds to the single DNA segment to create another segment
 Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
The Biology of the Virus
8. The two strand of DNA bond non covalently at the end to form a circular DNA
9.The viral integrase enables the viral DNA to enter the nucleus of the helper T-
lymphocytes and snips the T- lymphocyte DNA.
10. The viral DNA then able to attach itself to the snipped ends t- lymphocyte DNA.
11.The virus then remains in the cell dormant for awhile but divides along with it
during mitosis. (this results in multiple t lymphocytes with the HIV viral DNA)
12.Dormancy period usually last for 7-10 years. Known as the latency period.
 Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
The Biology of the Virus
14. When the viral DNA becomes active DNA polymerase will then bind to site of the
T-lymphocyte DNA that contains the viral DNA to produce an mRNA
15.Transcription then occurs creating viral proteins with components of the host cell.
16. Viral proteins then assembly and go towards cell membrane
Viral proteins bud of from cell (via exocytosis)
17. Host cell dies as a result of the infection and the cycle continues with the new viral
protein affecting
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)
SUMMARY/ CATEGORIZATION OF STAGES
1. Binding: Glycoprotein virus binds receptors of T-lymphocytes
2. Fusion: Viral enzyme and RNA enters T-lymphocyte cell via endocytosis
3. Reverse transcription: Viral reverse transcription allows for viral DNA to be
created
4. Integration: Viral integrase allows for viral DNA to enter T-lymphocyte nucleus
and embed within its DNA
5. Replication: Translation and transcription of the segment of the T- lymphocyte
DNA which contains the HIV DNA occurs resulting in the production of viral protein
6. Assembly: The newly formed viral proteins combine and moves toward cell
membrane
7. Budding: The virus exits the cell via exocytosis
 Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
Length of incubation period
Acute stage: 2-4 weeks after infection virus rapidly increases and attacks white
blood cells and the number white blood cell begins to lower. Immune system
eventually will respond to bring back down the viral numbers to the viral set point
and white blood cells increase but not usually to initial amount. (usually flu like
symptoms follow)
Latency period: virus shows no symptoms in person but rapidly multiplies within
the infected white blood cells.
AIDS: around 7- 10 years after latency period (without any medication) immune
system becomes weak due to lack of capable white blood cells and opportunist
infection are able to invade the body. 3 years after this period without medicine
usually results in death.
 Roles of lifestyle in contracting HIV
Having multiple partners
Soliciting sex from sex workers
Using unsterilized needles
Having unprotected vaginal, anal, or oral sex with someone who is infected with
HIV or whose HIV status you don't know.
Sharing needles
Blood transfusions or blood products from someone who is HIV positive (1985)
Any form of body fluid exchange between someone who is HIV positive and
someone who is not.
Alcohol and some drugs
Roles of lifestyle in HIV progressing to AIDS

Unprotected sex
Poor nutrition
Not taking medication as prescribed
 EASE OF TRAVEL
Through vaginal, seminal, pre-seminal fluid anal
Blood and blood products
Through the placenta of an HIV positive mother to her unborn
offspring
From a mother to her child via breast feeding
Through HIV contaminated needles
 LACK OF EDUCATION
Having sex with a virgin can cure AIDS.
Persons believe that if their partner is negative then that
means they are also.
There is no risk of infection during oral sex
Sex with many partners will reduce the amount of
infection in ones body.
You can tell if a person has HIV or AIDS by looking at
her or him.
 COST OF MEDICATION
Free in Jamaica if registered with health services
 COST OF MEDICATION
Drug Price Canadian (CAD) Price Jamaican (JMD)

Tenofovir 300mg 704 9164.22 - 67911.72

Lamivudine 10mg 100.93 - 128.90 9736.26 - 12434.40

31.77 - 188.53 3064.80 - 18186.64

Zidovudine 100mg
107 - 1475.70 10322.12 - 142358.46
Abacavir 300 mg
Atazanavir 150mg 109 - 740 10514.74 - 71383.39

Ritonavir 100mg 83 - 441.09 8004.85 - 42540.46

Lopinavir 200mg 125 - 135 12058.55 - 13019.93

 Cancer
Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the body. Cancer develops
when the bodys normal control mechanism stops working.

ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS
Cancer is caused by changes to certain genes that alter the way our cells function. Often
times these genetics changes occur naturally when deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is
replicated during cell division but other times those genetic alterations are bought on as a
result of environmental exposures that damage DNA. These exposures may include
substances, such as the chemicals in tobacco smoke, or radiation, such as ultraviolet rays
from the sun.

Ultraviolet(UV) radiation from the sun, sunlamps, or tanning beds can damage the
genetic material (the DNA) in your skin cells. If enough DNA damage builds up over
time, it can cause cells to start growing out of control, which can lead to skin cancer.
 Cancer
Ionizing radiation
Ionizing radiation is invisible, high-frequency radiation that can damage the genes inside the body as well as the
DNA as it is powerful enough to break bonds in these DNA molecules thus changing the base sequences in DNA.
Everyone is exposed to very small doses of ionizing radiation from cosmic rays (rays that enter the earths
atmosphere from outer space).

When uranium is broken down it releases a gas named Radon, which naturally releases low levels of ionizing
radiation. Radon gas seeps into homes from the surrounding soil through cracks and other openings in the
foundation or persons may be exposed by way of nuclear fall-out from a nuclear bomb. People exposed,
especially as children, to one radioactive form of iodine, called Iodine-131 or I-131, which collects in the thyroid
gland, may have an increased risk of thyroid disease, including thyroid cancer.

People are also exposed to ionizing radiation during certain medical procedures. Some patients who receive
radiation to treat cancer or other conditions may be at increased cancer risk. For example, persons treated with
radiation in childhood to treat acne have been shown to be at increased risk for thyroid cancer . Other studies of
women who received weekly X-ray procedures done on the chest area over extended periods to monitor treatment
for tuberculosis showed a radiation-related increased risk of breast cancer.
 CANCER
Tobacco
Cigarette, cigar, and pipe smoking, chewing tobacco, snuff, and
exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS or second hand smoke)
are all linked to increased cancer risks as the carcinogens present in
numerous tobacco products cause the development of the cancer.
Research has shown that about one-third of all cancer deaths in the
United States each year. Tobacco smoking have been associated with
cancers of the lung, mouth, bladder, colon, throat, voice box, stomach,
and with leukaemia. Cigarette smoke contains more than 100 cancer-
causing substances.
 Cancer
Food Additives
A number of food additives (flavours, colours and preservatives) have been considered as
possible carcinogens because they cause cancers in experimental animals. \
Sodium Nitrate and Sodium Nitrite are used as preservatives and to add colour and flavour
to processed meats and has been classified as probably carcinogenic to humans. It exists in
hot dogs, processed meat and bacon, doughnuts, chips, crackers, cookies and French fries.
MSG, which is hidden under 50 different names, which is present in the majority of retail
food items including infant formula, low fat milk, candy, chewing gum, drinks, over-the-
counter medications (especially childrens), fruit yogurts, prescription drugs, IV fluids given
in hospitals, and in the chicken pox vaccine.
Sodium benzoate is a classified carcinogen which acts as a mold inhibitor which can be
found in soft drinks like Pepsi and Coke and most jarred goods like pickles and sauces. It
works by depriving the human cells of oxygen, then breaking down the immune system and
fueling cancerous cells to multiply and infect the body. This can be found in products that
are labeled "All Natural."
 Cancer
Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) are preservatives that keep foods
from changing colour, changing the flavour or becoming rancid. These oxidants which form cancer-causing
reactive compounds in your body affect the neurological system of the brain, thus altering behaviour and has
the potential to cause cancer. They are normally found in cereals, chewing gum, potato chips, and vegetable
oils.

Found in potato chips, gum, cereal, frozen sausages, enriched rice, lard, shortening, candy, jello.

Viruses
Viruses are very small organisms that are made up of a small number of genes in the form of DNA or RNA
surrounded by a protein coating. A virus must enter a living cell and hijack the cells machinery in order to
reproduce and make more viruses. Some viruses do this by inserting their own DNA (or RNA) into that of the
host cell. When the DNA or RNA affects the host cells genes, it can push the cell toward becoming cancer.
They may also increase the chance that a person will be affected by other cancer risk factors, such as UV
radiation or substances in tobacco smoke that cause cancer. Some viruses, bacteria, and parasites also cause
chronic inflammation, which may lead to cancer.
 Cancer
Human Papillomaviruses (HPVs)
HPV infection occurs when the virus enters your body, usually through a cut, abrasion or small tear in your skin.
The virus is transferred primarily by skin-to-skin contact. Genital HPV infections are contracted through sexual
intercourse, anal sex and other skin-to-skin contact in the genital region. Infection with high-risk types of HPV
cause nearly all cervical cancers. Children as young as age 9 and adults as old as 26 can also be vaccinated. HPV
infections in the cervix can be found with specific tests. Although HPV infections themselves cannot be treated,
the cervical cell changes these infections can cause over time can be treated.
Hepatitis B Virus and Hepatitis C Virus (HBV and HCV)
HBV AND HCV are viral infections that attack the liver and can cause both acute and chronic diseases .Chronic
infections with HBV or HCV can cause liver cancer. Vaccination is especially important for healthcare workers
and other professionals who come into contact with human blood. Since the 1980s, infants in the United States
and most other countries have been routinely vaccinated against HBV infection. The rising incidence of liver
cancer in the United States is thought to be due to HCV
 Cancer
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
HIV is the virus that causes AIDS. Infection with HIV weakens the immune system
and makes the body less able to fight off other infectious agents that cause cancer.
People infected with HIV have an increased risk of cancers of the cervix, liver,
lung, and anus.
 Cancer
Genetic Changes and Cancer
Cancer is a genetic disease which translates to it is caused by certain changes to genes that control
the way our cells function, especially how they grow and divide. These changes include mutations
in the DNA that makes up our genes.
Genetic changes that increase cancer risk can be inherited from our parents if the changes are
present in germ cells or acquired during ones lifetime, as the result of errors that occur as cells
divide during a persons lifetime or exposure to substances, certain chemicals in tobacco smoke,
and radiation, such as ultraviolet rays from the sun, that damage DNA.
In general, cancer cells have more genetic changes than normal cells. But each persons cancer
has a unique combination of genetic alterations. As the cancer continues to grow, additional
changes will occur. Even within the same tumor, cancer cells may have different genetic changes.
 Cancer
Gene alterations may also contribute to individual differences in
susceptibility to environmental carcinogens meaning that people
differ in their ability to eliminate cancer-causing agents from their
body to which they have been exposed, or to repair DNA damage
that was caused by such agents. These gene alterations may also be
passed on in families and account for higher rates of cancer in these
families. Higher rates of cancer in families may also be related to
shared environmental exposures like diet or exposure to carcinogens
at work.
 Cancer
Implications of Symptom Awareness
Lack of symptom awareness of cancer causes the disease to develop to dangerous
stages and lead to death raising the mortality rate of cancer.
Symptoms of Cancer
Unexplained weight loss
Unusual swellings or lumps anywhere on the body,
Blood in urine or faeces,
Problems passing urine,
For women, unusual change to the breast, or vaginal bleeding after menopause or
between periods.
Lack of Treatment
The lack of treatment of cancer causes cancerous cells to multiply and thus cause the
probable development of tumours which worsens the disease and also increases the
mortality rate.
 Diabetes
What is diabetes?
Diabetes is caused by the inability of the pancreas to produce insulin. Most of
the food we eat is turned into glucose, or sugar, for our bodies to use for
energy. The pancreas makes a hormone called insulin to help glucose get into
the cells of our bodies. When you have diabetes, your body either doesn't
make enough insulin or can't use its own insulin as well as it should. This
causes sugars to build up in your blood. This is why many people refer to
diabetes as sugar.This causes the body cells to be unable to absorb glucose
which therefore stays in the blood.
With Type 1 Diabetes, a disease called autoimmune is associated as the
body's immune system attacks part of its own pancreas as the immune system
mistakenly sees the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas as foreign, and
destroys them.
 Diabetes
With Type 2 Diabetes, your body either resists the effects of insulin a hormone that
regulates the movement of sugar into your cells or doesn't produce enough insulin to
maintain a normal glucose level.
Effects of Diet
Being overweight does increase your risk for developing type 2 diabetes, and a diet high in
calories from any source contributes to weight gain. Carbohydrates are foods that have the
biggest effect on your blood glucose levels. After you eat carbohydrates, your blood glucose
rises. Although carbohydrates are important for health, when you eat too many at once, your
blood glucose can go too high, especially if you do not have or take adequate insulin.
Sugary drinks such as sodas, caffeine drinks and sweet teas also shows to provide your body
with more glucose than it can manage, thus causing the development of diabetes.
 Diabetes

Obesity
People who are obese have added pressure on their body's ability to use insulin to
properly control blood sugar levels, and are therefore more likely to develop diabetes.
Inflammatory response
Having excess abdominal fat causes insulin resistance as the fat cells release pro-
inflammatory chemicals, which can make the body less sensitive to the insulin it
produces by disrupting the function of insulin responsive cells and their ability to
respond to insulin. Physical inactivity and obesity are strongly associated with the
development of type 2 diabetes. People who are genetically susceptible to type 2
diabetes are more vulnerable when these risk factors are present.
 Diabetes
Disruption in fat metabolism
Obesity triggers changes to the body's metabolism. These changes cause fat tissue
(adipose tissue) to release fat molecules into the blood, which can affect insulin
responsive cells and lead to reduced insulin sensitivity.
Prenatal Malnutrition
Research studies has found a link between mothers who were malnourished while they
were pregnant may be more likely to develop diabetes when they are older. This is
supported by the idea that mild maternal malnutrition causes impaired function in fetal
organs, including the pancreas and liver, which are both regulators of insulin and
glucose. Data from human and animal studies have shown that malnutrition or over-
nutrition, metabolic disorders, some chemicals and hormones, and unhealthy lifestyle
such as smoking and alcohol drinking during pregnancy might predispose detrimental
long-term effects on offspring, leading to increased risk of insulin resistance or T2DM
 Third edition Biological science 1&2
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Past paper questions
2006may/june paper 1 8c
2006 9 b-c
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 Special thanks to
Dr. Doreth Garvey
Dr. Melody Ennis
Dr. Denise Bennett