CYTOLOGY

Cell Components
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Cytoskeleton
Cell surface
 Plasma Membrane

All eukaryotic cells are

enveloped by a limiting
membrane composed of
phospholipids, cholesterol,
proteins, and chains of
oligosaccharides covalently
linked to phospholipids and
protein molecules.
The cell, or plasma, membrane
functions as a selective barrier
that regulates the passage of
certain materials into and out of
the cell and facilitates the
transport of specific molecules.
Membrane phospholipids,
such as lecithin and cephalin,
consist of two long, nonpolar
chains linked to a charged
(hydrophilic) head group.
Cholesterol is also a
constituent of cell
membranes.
Within the membrane,
phospholipids are most
stable when organized into a
double layer with their
hydrophobic (nonpolar)
chains directed toward the
center of a membrane and
their hydrophilic (charged)
heads directed outward.
Cholesterol breaks up the
close packing of the
phospholipid long chains,
and disruption makes
membrane more fluid.
The cell controls the
fluidity of the membranes
through the amount of
cholesterol present.
Plasma membrane
The fluid mosaic model of membrane
structure

Main components;
1.Phospholipids
2.Cholesterol
3.Proteins
4.Chains of oligosaccharides
Plasma membrane
Plasma membrane
Phospholipids
-phosphatidylcholine(lecithin)
-phosphatidylethanolamine(cephalin)
Structure: 2 nonpolar (hydrophobic)
hydrocarbon chains linked to one
charged(hydrophilic) head group
Cholesterol
-breaks up the close packing of the
phospholipid long chains,and as a
consequence plasma membranes become
more fluid
Proteins
1. Integral proteins
-directly incorporated within the lipid bilayer
2. Peripheral proteins
-exhibit a looser association with membrane
surfaces.They can be easily removed from
the cell membranes with salt solutions
In order to regulate the transport of
molecules, there are two types of
proteins in the cell:
- carrier proteins
- transport proteins.

The two types of transport proteins are:

- channel
- carrier protein.
Transport is either active or passive.
Active transport is moving molecules
against the concentration gradient and
energy is required in the form of ATP.
Glycocalyx
-a fuzzy carbohydrate-rich region on the
external surface of the cell
-composed of carbohydrate chains linked to a
membrane proteins and lipids and of cell-
secreted glycoproteins and proteoglycans
Plasma membrane
Plasma membrane-transport
The plasma membrane is the site at which
materials are exchanged between the cell
and its environment
Endocytosis-bulk uptake of material through
the plasma membrane
Passive transport is moving molecules down the
concentration gradient and no energy is required.
Examples of passive transport are diffusion,
which moves from high concentration to low
concentration and osmosis, which is the diffusion
of water molecules.
 The Nucleus

Its enclosed by
the nuclear
envelope and
contains:
- nuclear lamina
- nucleolus
- chromatin
 Nucleus

The nucleus is the site of

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
replication and trascription of
DNA into precursor ribonucleic
acid (RNA) molecules.
It contains all of the enzymes
required for replication and
repair of newly senthesized
DNA, as well as for trascription
and processing of precursor
RNA molecules.
 Nuclear envelope
-Is double
membrane
containing pores
-The outer nuclear
membrane is
continuous with
the endoplasmic
reticulum
 Nucleolus
contains three
morphologically distinc
zones:
- granular zone found at
periphery; contains ribosomal
precursor particles in various
stages of assembly
- fibrillar zone centrally
located; contains ribonuclear
protein fibrils
- fibrillar center- contains DNA
that is not being transcribed
Chromatin
Is a complex of:
DNA
histone proteins
and nonhistone proteins
DNA
A double-
stranded
helical
molecule
that
carries
gentic
informati
on of the
cell
 Histone
Positively chargedproteins
proteins
enriched with lysine and
arginine residues. They are
important in forming two types
of structures in chromatin:
- nucleosomes
- solenoid fibers
The nucleosomes are the basic
repeating units of the chromatin
fiber.

Schematic representation of a nucleosome.

This structure consists of a core of 4 types
of histones (2 copies of each)H2A, H2B,
H3, and H4and one molecule of H1 or H5
located outside the DNA filament.
Nonhistone proteins
Include enzymes involved in nuclear
functions such as:
- replication
- transcription
- DNA repair
- regulation of chromatin function
They are acidic of neutral proteins.
 Forms of chromatin
- Heterochromatin -
highly condensend,
transcriptionally inactive

- Euchromatin a more
extended form of DNA,
which is potentially
transcriptionally active.
 Cytoplasm
components
-Endoplasmic
reticulum

-Golgi Apparatus

-Lysosomes

-Peroxisomes

-Mitochondria
Endoplasmatic Reticulum
 Endoplasmatic Reticulum

Exists in two forms:

-Rough
endoplasmatic
reticulum (RER)

-Smooth
endoplasmatic
reticulum (SER)
 Rough endoplasmatic reticulum
- RER is a single, lipid bilayer
continuous with outer nuclear
membrane. Its organized into
stacks of large flattened sacs
called cisternae that are studded
with ribosomes on the cytoplasmic
side.
- RER synthesizes proteins that are
destined for the Golgi apparatus,
secretion, the plasma membrane
and lysosomes.
- RER is very prominent in cells
that are specialized of proteins
destined for secretion (e.g.,
pancreatic cells)
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
SER is a network of membranous sacs,
vesicles, and tubules continuous with
the RER, but lacking ribosomes.
SER contains enzymes involved in the
biosynthesis of phospholipids,
triglycerides, and sterols.
Functions of SER
1. Detoxification Reactions / hepatocytes /
These are reactions that make compounds
soluble so that they can be excreted.
Two types of reactions that increase
solubility are:
- Hydroxylation reactions
- conjugation reactions
Functions of SER

2. Glycogen Degradation and

Gluconeogenesis

3. Steroid synthesis / Leydig cells in

testis and adrenal gland cells /
Functions of SER
4. Reactions in Lipid Metabolism
Lipolysis begins in the SER with the
release fatty acid from triglyceride.
The SER is also the site where
lipoprotein particles are assembled
Functions of SER
5. Sequesration and Release of Calcium
Ions
In striated muscle the SER is known as
sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR).
The sequestration and release of
calcium ions takes place in the SR.
Golgi Apparatus
Consists of disc-shaped smooth
cisternae that are assembled in
stacks (dictyosomes)
Associated with numerous small
membrane-bound vesicles.
The Golgi apparatus
has two distinct faces:
The cis (forming) face
associated with RER
The trans (maturing)
face is often oriented
toward the plasma
membrane. The trans-
most region is a
network of tubular
structures known as
the trans-Golgi
network.
 Functions of Golgi apparatus
Proteins and Lipids
AG is the site of posttranslational modification
and sorting of newly synthesized proteins and
lipids.
Glycoproteins
Further modification of the carbohydrate
moiety of glycoproteins produces complex and
hybrid oligosaccharide chains. This
determines which proteins remain in the Golgi
apparatus or leave the Golgi apparatus to
become secretory proteins, lysosomal
proteins, or part of the plasma membrane.
Mitochondria
 Mitochondria
- two membranes
- synthesizes adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)
- contain their own
double-stranded circular
DNA, and make some of
their own proteins
- have several
compartments
Outer membrane

- is smooth, continuous,
and highly permeable
- contains an
abundance of porin, an
integral membrane
protein that forms
channels in the outer
membrane
 Inner membrane
Is impermeable to most small ions
and small molecules.
-The inner membrane has
numerous infoldings, called
cristae. The cristae greatly
increase the total surface area.
They contain the enzymes for
electron transport and oxidative
phosphorylation.
The number of mitochondria and
the number of cristae per
mitochondrion are proportional to
the metabolic activity of the cells
in which they reside.
Intermembrane
compartment
It is the space
between the inner and
outer membranes.
Contains enzymes
that use ATP to
phosphorylate other
nucleotides.
 Matrix
Is enclosed by the inner membrane and
contains:
-dehydrogenases- oxidize many of the
substrates in the cell , generating reduced
NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotid ) and
reduced FADH2 (adenine dinucleotide) for use
by the electron transport chain and energy
generation.
-a double-stranded circular DNA genome-
encodes a few of the mitochondrial DNA is
always inherited from the mother, resulting in
the maternal transmission of diseases of
energy metabolism.
-RNA, proteins, and ribosomes- although there
is some protein synthesis, most mitochondrial
proteins are synthesized in the cytoplasm and
are transferred into the mitochondria.
Ribosomes
 Ribosomes

Composed of RNA and

protein
Consist of large (60s) and
small (40s) subunits
Assembled in the nucleus
and transported to the
cytoplasm through the
nuclear pores
The large ribosomal
subunits are synthesized in
the nucleolus, whereas the
small subunits are
synthesized in the nucleus.
 Polysomes
Ribosomes often form
polysomes, which consist
of a single messenger
RNA (mRNA) that is being
translated by several
ribosomes at the same
time.
The ribosomes move on
the mRNA from the 5 end
toward 3 end. The two
ribosomal subunits
associate on the mRNA
with the small subunit
binding first.
Forms of ribosomes

-Free polysomes are the

site of synthesis for
proteins destined for the
nucleus, peroxisomes, or
mitochondria.
-Membrane-associated
polysomes are the site of
secretory proteins,
membrane proteins, and
lyzosomal enzymes.
Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are a heterogeneous
group of small, spherical organelles
with a single membrane.
- Contain a number of enzymes that
transfer hydrogen atoms from organic
substrates to molecular oxygen with
the formation of hydrogen peroxide.
Catalase, the major peroxisomal
protein, degrades the hydrogen
peroxide to water and oxygen.
- Peroxisomal enzymes are
synthesized on free polysomes. After
translation, the enzymes are
incorporated directly into
peroxisomes.
Peroxisomes functions
1. synthesis and degradation of hydrogen peroxide
2. -oxidation of very long chain fatty acids
(>C24) starts in the peroxisomes and proceeds
until the carbon chain has been reduced to
length of approximately 10 carbons.
Oxidation of the residual 10 carbons is
completed in the mitochondria.
3. Phospholipid exchange- peroxisomes contain
enzymes that convert phosphatidylserine and
phosphatidylethanolamine
4. Bile acid synthesis
 Lysosomes

Spherical
membrane-
enclosed organelles
Contain enzymes
required for
intracellular
digestion
Lysosomes forms
Primary lysosomes have not yet
acquired the materials to be digested.
They are formed by budding from the
trans side of the Golgi apparatus.
Secondary lysosomes are formed by
the fusion of the primary lysosome with
the substrate to be degraded and have
contents that are in various stages of
degradation.
Lysosomes contain approximately 60
hydrolytic enzymes. These include nulceases
for degrading DNA and RNA, lipases for
degrading lipids, glycosidases for degrading
glycoconjugates , proteases and peptidases for
degrading proteins, and a variety of
phosphatases
all lysosomal enzymes are acid hydrolases,
with optimal activity at pH of approximately
5.0
the synthesis of the lysosomal hydrolases
occurs in the RER; the hydrolases are
transffered to the Golgi apparatus, where they
are modified and packaged into lysosomes.
Proteasomes
 Proteasomes
are multiple-protease complexes
that digest proteins targeted for
destruction by attachment to
ubiquitin. Protein degradation is
essential to remove excess enzyme
and other proteins that become
unnecessary to the cell after they
perform their normal functions, and
also to remove proteins that were
incorrectly folded.
Protein encoded by virus should also
be destroyed.
Proteasomes deal
primarily with proteins as
individual molecules,
whereas lysosomes digest
bulk material introduced
into the cell or whole
organelles and vesicles.
The proteasome has a core
particle with the shape of a
barrel made of four rings
stacked on each other. At
each end of the core particle
is a regulatory particle that
contains ATPase and
recognizes proteins with
ubiquitin molecules
attached.
 Cytoskeleton

Provides a
supportive network
of tubules and
filaments in the
cytoplasm of
eukaryotic cells. It is
composed of :
- microtubules
- intermediate
filaments
- - microfilaments.
The cytoskeleton
Microtubules- 25 nm
Microfilaments (actin filaments)-6 nm
Intermediate filaments- 10 nm
Microtubules
Tubular structures
Variable in length
Composed of subunits-heterodimers
Each heterodimer is composed of alfa and
beta tubulin molecules

Alfa-tubulin protofilaments
microtubules
Beta-tubulin
Microtubules
Microtubules
The main functions of microtubules
-play role in the development and
maintenance of cell shape
-participate in the the intracellular transport
of organelles and vesicles
-provide the basis for cytoplasmic
components ;centrioles,basal bodies,
cilia,flagella
Microtubules-function
chromosomal movement during meiosis
and mitosis. Microtubule assembly is an
important event in spindle formation
intracellular vesicle and organelle
transport
ciliary and flagellar movement
Microtubules
Centrioles
Cylindical structures composed of highly
organised microtubules
Each centriole consists of nine sets of
microtubules arranged in triplets
Centrosome- an important role during cell
division
Cilia and flagella
-motile processes, covered by cell membrane
Cilia-usually a large number of cilia on one ciliated
cell,
play role in sweeping fluid from the surface of cell
sheets.
Flagella-in humans only spermatozoa possess a
flagellum (only one)
typical core organisation, contains nine pairs of
microtubules, possesing a 9+2 pattern=AXONEME
Adjacent peripheral pairs are linked to each other
by protein bridges-nexins
 Cilia
Are apical cell surface of cell
membrane that contain
microtubules. They are inserted
on centriole-like basal bodies
present below the membrane
surface at the apical pole.
Cilia contain two central
microtubules surrounded by a
circle of nine peripheral
microtubule doublets.
Cilia and flagella
 Movement of Cilia

Cilia move back and forth

to propel fluid and
particles in one direction.
They are important in
clearing mucus from
respiratory tract.
Immotile cilia syndrome
Cause; mutations in the proteins of cilia and
flagella

Immotile spermatozoa- male infertility

Lack of the cleansing action of cilia in the
respiratory tract-respiratory infections
Basal body
-at the base of each cillium and flagellum
-Structure; similar to a centriole
-Function; controls the assembly of the
axoneme
Microfilaments
The thinnest filaments of the cytoskeleton
Found in cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells
Built up of a protein-ACTIN (actin filaments)
Are formed by the head-to-tail
polimerization of actin monomers (globular
G-actin) forming a long filamentous F actin
polymer.
- The polymers are twisted around each
other in a double helical formation
Microfilaments
Microfilaments
In skeletal muscle they interract with
myosin filaments which is an essential
process in the mechanism of contraction.
In most cells actin filaments form a thin
sheath just beneath the plasmalemma,
called the cell cortex-associated with
membrane activities like
endocytosis,exocytosis and cell migratory
activity
A role in moving and shifting cytoplasmic
components
Microfilaments

-are
composed
of actin.
Each actin
filament (F-
actin)
consists of
two strands
of actin
twisted into
helical
pattern
 Microvilli
Are apical cell surface
evaginations of cell membranes
that function to increase the
cell surface area available for
absorption. A thick glycocalyx
coat covers them. The core of
each microvillus contains actin
microfilaments. It is anchored
in the apical cell cytoplasm to
the terminal web, which itself is
anchored to the zoula adherens
of the cell membrane
 Intermediate filaments
They are intermediate in thickness between
microtubules and microfilaments. They function
primarily in structural roles and contain several
types of tissue-specific proteins:

cytokeratins- found in epithelial tissue

desmin- found in smooth muscle; Z disks of skeletal
and cardiac muscle
vimentin- found in cells of mesenchymal origin
(endothelial cells, fibroblasts, chondroblasts,
vascular smooth muscle)
neurofilaments- found in neurons
glial fibrillaty acid protein (GFA)- found in astrocytes
Intermediate filaments

FILAMENT TYPE CELL TYPE EXAMPLES

keratins epithelium Both keratinizing
and nonkeratinizing
epithelia
vimentin Mesenchymal cells Fibroblasts,
macrophages
desmin muscle Striated and smooth
muscle(except
vascular smooth
muscle)
Gilial Glial cells Astrocytes

Neurofilaments neurons Nerve cell body and

processes