UNIT 3 (DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCH) & 4

(BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR) REVIEW Ms. Garcha

AP PSYCH 12
TO DO
PHOTOCOPY PG 69 FROM AP PSYCH MANUEL FOR KIDS IN
UNIT 4!!!!
 KEY ISSUES IN
DEVELOPMENT: NATURE VS.
NURTURE
Nature Vs. Nurture = psychologists agree today that
nature (heredity) & nurture (enviro) interact to
determine behaviour but disagree about extent of each
Biological Psychologists, neuroscientists, and
evolutionary psychologists argue development results
from genetically determined maturation biological
growth processes that bring about orderly changes in
behaviour, thought, or physical growth, relatively
unaffected by experience
Behaviourists argue that physical structures are
KEY ISSUES IN
DEVELOPMENT: CONTINUITY
VS.
DISCONTINUITY
Is development gradual and cumulative (increase in
change from
quantity/degree/force by successive additions)
conception to death (continuity) or a sequence of
distinct stages (discontinuity)
Behaviourists (favour continuity) focus on
quantitative changes ex. Changes in height or weight
Piaget, Kohlberg, Erikson favour stages that focus
on qualitative changes in structure or organization.
They theorize that the child and growing adult
resolve conflicts or develop different abilities in
stages through which everyone passes in the same
KEY ISSUES IN
DEVELOPMENT: STABILITY
VS. CHANGE
Issue of whether personality traits present during
infancy endure throughout life
Psychoanalysts like Freud, blv personality traits
develop in the first 5 years predict adult personality
Developmental psychologists research which
characteristics are most likely o remain stable and
consistent, and which are likely to be more flexible
and subject to change
Ex. Outgoingness seems relatively stable, social
 RESEARCH DESIGNS TO
STUDY DEVELOPMENT
1) Longitudinal Studies: follows same group of people for months or
years
costly to conduct, long time to produce results, lose participants
over time
2) Cross- Sectional Studies: assess developmental changes with
respect to a particular factor by evaluating diff age groups of people at
the same time. Ex. Study life span changes in math skills, could give
same math tests to diff age groups at same time.
Experience in one age group can significantly differ from other age
group cohort effect. Ex. Younger participants have used calculators/
comp their whole lives while 65+ year-olds havent had same
opportunity
 RESEARCH DESIGNS TO STUDY DEVELOPMENT
3) Cohort- Sequential Studies: cross- sectional groups are
assessed @ least 2 x over months/ years vs just once. Results
from one cohort are compared with other cohorts @ the same
age to evaluate their similarity; differences indicate cohort
effect (when one group of people in one age group is
significantly diff in their experiences from other age of people)
- Same disadvantages of longitudinal research but to lesser
extent
4) Retrospective Studies: investigate development in one
person @ a time.
- Studies are detailed but are not always correct bc memory is
not always accurate
- May not be generalizable to a larger pop
 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Prenatal development begins with conception &
ends with birth
Zygote (First 2 weeks): Fertilized ovum. It divides
itself again and again forming a hollow ball of cells
that buries itself in uterus wall & develops 3 layers of
inner cell mass
Embryo (weeks 3 -8): Genes functioning in the 3
layers of inner cell mass. Organs develop & placenta,
umbilical cord, & other structures form from outer
cells. Nutrients, oxygen, wastes, other substances,
etc. pass from womans blood into and out of the
developing organism through the placenta
 BIRTH DEFECTS

Birth defects can result from a malfunctioning gene or an environmental

stimulus
Chemicals such as alcohol, drugs, tobacco ingredients, mercury, lead, and
other poisons or infectious agents such as viruses cause birth defects called
teratogens
Most birth defects develop during embryonic period
Critical period for eyes, ears, arms, legs, and the heart is typically in first
trimester
Critical period for damage to reproductive system extends across 1 st and 2nd
trimester
Critical period for nervous system is all 3 trimesters
FAS Fetal Alcohol Syndrome = abnormalities that occur in babies of
mothers who drink alcohol during pregnancy. Intellectual impairment ranges
from LD to severe intellectual disability.
 N E O N AT E S ( N E W B O R N B A B I E S )

Equipped with basic reflects that increase their chances of survival

Rooting (neonate turning his/ her head when touched on the cheek
& then trying to put stimulus into his/ her mouth), Sucking (drawing
things into the mouth), Swallowing (enables food to pass into
esophagus without neonate choking) reflexes enable neonates to get
food
Lack of some reflexes can indicate brain damage
Grasping reflex (infant closes his/her fingers tightly around object
put into their hand)
Moro/ Startle reflex (loud noise or sudden drop causes neonate to
automatically arch their back, fling their limbs, & quickly retract them)
As infant matures, developing voluntary control over behaviours,
many of the reflexes disappear
 THE FIRST TWO YEARS

20 billion brain cells are produced

(brain development proceeds rapidly
from prenatal period)
Body proportions change as torso and
limbs grow more quickly, so that head
is less out of proportion to body size
Baby lifts its head, rolls over, sits,
creeps, stands, and walks, normally in
that order
Maturation, motor & perceptual skills,
motivation, and environmental support
all contribute to development of new
behaviours
 ADOLESCENCE
The next growth spurt comes in adolescence, following a dramatic
increase in production of sex hormones
Puberty sexual maturation, marked by the onset of the ability to
reproduce
Primary sex characteristics reproductive organs (ovaries and test3s)
start producing mature sex cells, and external genitals(vulva and penis)
grow
Secondary sex characteristics nonreproductive features associated
with sexual maturity. Ex. Widening of hips in females, growth of facial
hair, muscular growth, and deepening of voice in males
Girls begin their growth spurt about 2 years before their menstrual
period (menarche) typically age 12.5
Boys start their growth spurt about 2 years later than girls
 AGING

Around age 50, females undergo menopause

cessation of the ability to reproduce
accompanied by decrease in production of
female sex hormones
Men experience more gradual decline in
reproductive function as they age
Lenses of eyes thicken, letting less light
reach retina and worsening vision for near
objects, ability to detect high-pitched sounds
decreases & sensitivity to tastes, odors, &
temp may decrease
 JEAN PIAGETS THEORY OF
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
- Certain cognitive structures are innate, but only through a childs
interaction with the enviro could they grow & develop over time
- Piaget believed that all knowledge begins w building blocks called
schemas, (mental representations that org and categorize info
processed by our brain)
Through assimilation, we fit new info into our existing schemas
--> Through accommodation, we modify our schemas to fit new
info
- As babies, we learn through accommodation that not all people fit
our schema of mommy
 JEAN PIAGETS THEORY OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT SENSORIMOTOR (FIRST) STAGE
Birth age 2
Baby explores world using senses & motor
interactions w objects in the enviro
Object permanence objects continue to
exist even when out of sight develops
between 8 and 10 months. Ex. A 5- month- old
who sees a toy does not search for it if it
disappears but a 9 month- old does
Stranger anxiety - ~8 months of age, fear
of unfamiliar ppl, indicating that they can
JEAN PIAGETS THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT PREOPERATIONAL (SECOND) STAGE

Age 2 7
Language develops w ability to think
Child mainly egocentric seeing the world from
his or her own point of view
Egocentrism consistent with a belief called
animism, that all things are living just like him/
her & the belief called artificialism, that all
objects are made by ppl
Child uses trial and error to figure out how things
work
JEAN PIAGETS THEORY OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT CONCRETE
OPERATIONAL (THIRD) STAGE

Ages 7 12
Develop simple logic & master conservation concepts, that
changes in the form of an object do not alter physical
properties of mass, volume, and number
Ex. 12 ounces of juice in a tall, thin glass isn't more than
12 ounces of juice in a short, fat glass
Child can now logically classify objects into categories
mentally
Ex. 3 + 4 = 4 + 3
JEAN PIAGETS THEORY OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT FORMAL OPERATIONAL
(FOURTH) STAGE
According to Piaget, after age 12 children
reason like adults
Youngsters can think abstractly and
hypothetically
Tests can involve abstract questions, such as
truth and justice
 VYGOTSKYS SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Piaget emphasized maturation (nature) and
development in stages (discontinuity), Vygotsky
emphasized role of environment (nurture) & gradual
growth (continuity)
Internalization absorbing info from a specified social
environmental context
Children learn from observing interactions of others &
through their own interactions within the enviro
Zone of proximal development (ZPD) - range b/w level
at which a child can solve a problem with the assistance
of adults or more skilled children.
working close to the upper limit of a childs capability,
the instructor and child work closely together to reach
KOHLBERGS THEORY OF
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Preconventional level of morality usually during preoperational
stage (age 2 -7). They do the right thing to avoid punishment
(Stage 1), or to further their self- interests (stage 2)
Conventional level of morality usually during concrete operational
stage (ages 7-12). People follow rules to live up to the expectations
of others, good boy/ nice girl (stage 3), or to maintain law and
order and do their duty (stage 4). Most teens and adults think
morally at the conventional level
Postconventional level of morality usually during formal
operational stage of cog development (after age 12. People
evidence a social contract orientation that promotes the societys
welfare (Stage 5), or evidence an ethical principle orientation that
promotes justice and avoids self- condemnation (stage 6).
ATTACHMENT
As the mother bonds with the infant, through frequent interactions, the
infant gradually forms a close emotional relationship with the mother/
caregivers = attachment
Developmental psychologists thought that babies became attached to
the caregiver who fed them. Harry Harlows experiment w monkeys
disproved that belief when he found:
Baby monkeys separated from their mothers preferred to spend time
with and sought comfort from a soft cloth- covered substitute rather than
a bare wire substitute with a feeding bottle
Recent research reveals that human infants become attached to familiar
caregivers, usually parents, who not only provides them with
nourishment, but also a soft, warm, reassuring enviro where the baby
feels safe and secure.
 PARENTING STYLES - DIANA BAUMRIND STUDIED HOW PARENTING STYLES AFFECT THE EMOTIONAL
GROWTH OF CHILDREN

Authoritarian parents set up strict rules, expect children to follow

them, and punish wrongdoing
Authoritative parents set limits, but explain the reasons for rules
with their children, and make exceptions when appropriate
Permissive parents tend not to set firm guidelines, if they set any
at all. They tend to be more responsive than demanding
Uninvolved parents make few demands, show low
responsiveness, and communicate little with their children. While
these parents fulfill the childrens basic needs, they are generally
detached from their children's lives.
Baumrind found the most self- reliant, socially competent children
with the highest self-esteem have warm, authoritative parents
 ERIKSONS STAGE THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Identifies 8 stages during which we face an important issue

or crisis. How we resolve each crisis shapes our personality
and affects our relationships with others.
Stage 1: (newborn to 1 year old) face the crisis of trust vs.
mistrust. Parents must provide a safe, consistent, and loving
enviro for children to leave this stage healthily with a strong
trust that others care. Mistrust, based on cold or abusive
situations , prevents children from leaving this stage ready to
form lasting and close relationships in the future
Stage 2: (2 years) face autonomy vs. shame and doubt.
Terrible Twos comes from childrens needs to develop self-
control and do things for themselves, which often can lead to
spills, falls, wetting, and other accidents. Children who are
encouraged to try new skills develop autonomy, while those
 ERIKSONS STAGE THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Stage 3: (3-5 years of age) face the crisis of initiative vs.

guilt. Children need to learn to make plans, ask questions,
make choices, and use imagination to develop imitative. If
theyre severely criticized, discouraged from asking
questions not permitted to make choices, or prevented from
playing, children feel guilty
Stage 4: (6-12 age) face industry vs. inferiority. Children
need to be positive reinforced for productive activities, ex.
Good grades/good sportsmanship/artistically/etc in order to
develop healthy self- identity. If childrens efforts are
considered inadequate, feelings of social or mental
inferiority an carry over to a poor self-concept in future
 ERIKSONS STAGE THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT
Stage 5: (12-20 ages) identify vs. role confusion. Answering
the question of, Who am I? is the major task. During adolescence,
peer relationships become much more imp & peer and family
values often conflict so adolescents have challenges in defining
themselves. Failure of teens to achieve sense of identity = role
confusion & uncertainty about who they are and where they are
going
Stage 6: (21 40 age) crisis of intimacy vs. isolation. Intimacy
involves deeply caring about others and sharing meaningful
experiences with them, especially a life partner. Without intimacy,
people feel alone and uncared for in life; they experience isolation.
 ERIKSONS STAGE THEORY OF
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Stage 7: (40 65 years) crisis is generativity vs. stagnation.
Adults need to express their caring about the next & future
generations by guiding/ mentoring others/ producing creative
work that enriches the lives of others. People who fail to achieve
generativity can become stagnant and preoccupied with their
own needs and comforts.
Stage 8: (ages 65 death) crisis is integrity vs. despair. Those
who look back on their lives with satisfaction that they have lived
their lives will develop a sense of wholeness and integrity. Those
in despair look back with regrets and disappointment in the lives
theyve led.
Eriksons theory most accurately describes development in
 MIDDLE AGE AND DEATH
Daniel Levinson described the mid-life crisis: Around age 40,
seen by some as a last chance to achieve their goals. People who
experience anxiety, instability, and change about themselves,
their work, and their relationships during this time have a
challenging experience.
Kulber- Ross concluded that terminally ill patients pass through 5
stages of coping, denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and
acceptance.
Subsequent research has revealed that not all terminal
patients pass through all of the stages nor do they necessarily go
through the stages in the order indicated.
UNIT 4: (BIOLOGICAL BASIS
OF BEHAVIOUR)
 BROCA & WERNICKES AREA

Tan lost his capacity to speak, but his mouth & vocal cords
werent damaged and he could still understand language
His brain showed deterioration of frontal lobe of left cerebral
hemisphere = Brocas area (this connected destruction of the
part of the left frontal lobe)
Brocas area = loss of ability to speak, known as
expressive aphasia
Carl Wenicke found another brain area involved in
understanding language in left termporal lobe. Destruction of
Wernickes area = loss of the ability to comprehend written &
spoken language, known as receptive aphasia
 NEUROSCIENTISTS CAN NOW LOOK INSIDE
THE BRAIN WITHOUT SURGERY
Computerized axial tomography (CAT or CT): a computerized
image using rays passed through various angles of the brain
showing 2D slices that can be arranged to show the extent of an
injury
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): a magnetic field and pulses of
radio waves cause emission of faint radio frequency signals that
depend upon the density of the tissue. The comp constructs imagesCT Scan:
based on varying signals that are more detailed than CT scans.
*Both CT and MrIs show the structure of the brain, but both dont
show brain functioning
 M E AS U R IN G B RA IN FUN C TI ON

EEG (electroencephalogram): amplified tracing of brain activity produced when

electrodes positioned over the scalp transmit signals about the brains electrical activity
(brain waves) to an electroencephalograph machine.
EEGs have been used to study brain during states of arousal sleeping and dreaming, to
detect abnormalities (such as deafness and visual disorders) in infants, and to study
cognition
Positron emission tomography (PET) produces colour comp graphics that depend on
the amount of metabolic activity in the imaged rain region. When neurons are active, an
automatic increase in blood flow to the active region of the brain brings more oxygen and
glucose necessary for respiration.
Blood flow changes are used to create brain images when tracers injected in to the blood
of the subject emit particles, which are converted into signals detected by the PET scanner
Functional MRI (fMRI) shows the brain at work at higher resolution than the PET. Changes
in oxygen in the blood of an active area alters its magnetic qualities, which is recorded by
the fMRI scanner. After further comp processing a detailed picture of that local brain activity
emerges
 NERVOUS SYSTEM
Central Nervous System brain & spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System Somatic nervous
system + autonomic nervous system
Somatic nervous system has motor neurons that
stimulate voluntary muscles.
Autonomic nervous system has motor neurons that
stimulate involuntary and heart muscles. It has
sympathetic nervous & parasympathetic nervous
system
Sympathetic stimulation results in responses that
help your body deal with stressful events
Parasympathetic stimulation calms your body
BRAIN FUNCTION
Association areas regions of the cerebral cortex that do not
have specific sensory or motor functions, but are involved in
higher mental functions such as thinking, planning,
remembering, and communicating.
Crossing over of nerves sending info from one side of your
body to the other side of your brain results in contralaterality,
control of one side of your body by the other side of your
brain
PLEASE ENSURE YOU HAVE A
HANDOUT OF NOTES
LABELED STRUCTURE OF
BRAIN & FUNCTION.
 STRUCTURE & FUNCTION OF THE NEURON
Glial cells guide growth of developing neurons, help
provide nutrition for and get rid of wastes of neurons, and
form an insulating cover around neurons that speeds
conduction
Cell body contains cytoplasm & nucleus which directs
synthesis of eah substances as neurotransmitters
Dendrites = branching tubular processes capable of
receiving info
Axon = single conducting fiber (longer than a dendrite),
which branches and ends in tips called terminal buttons
Neurogenesis, the growth of new neurons, takes place
throughout life
 NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Chemicals stored in structures of terminal
buttons called synaptic vesicles
Diff neurotransmitters have diff chemical
structures and have different functions
Dopamine stimulates hypothalamus to
synthesize hormones & affects alertness and
movement. Lack of dopamine is associated w
Parkinsons Disease; too much associated w
schizophrenia
Glutamate is a neurotransmitter involved in info
processing through the cortex and esp memory
formation in the hippocampus. Schizophrenia &
Alzheimers may involve glutamate receptors.
 NEUROTRANSMITTERS
CONTINUED
Serotonin is associated w sexual activity,
concentration & attn, moods, & emotions
Lack of serotonin associated w depression
Opioid peptides such as endorphins are often
considered the brains own pain killers
 NEURON FUNCTIONS
All behaviour begins with neuron action
A neuron gets incoming info from receptors info sent to its cell
body, where its combined w other incoming info
Neural impulses are electrical in nature along the neuron. The
neuron at rest is more negative inside the cell membrane relative to
outside of the membrane
Neurons resting potential results from the selective permeability of
its membrane & presence of electrically charged particles (ions) near
the inside and outside surfaces of membrane
When sufficiently stimulated, a flow of ions into the cell causes a
rapid change in potential across membrane = action potential
If stimulation is not strong enough, your neuron doesnt fire. The
strength of the action potential is constant whenever it occurs. This is
the all-or-none principle.
 Endocrine system - Interacts w nervous system to regulate behaviour and body
functions
Consists of glands that secrete chemical messengers (hormones) into blood. Hormones travel to
target organs where they bind to receptors
Endocrine glands include:
pineal gland (brain) produces melatonin that helps regulate circadian rhythms & assoc with
seasonal affective disorder
Hypothalamus (brain) produces hormones that stimulate or inhibit secretion of hormones by
pituitary
pituitary gland (in your brain) produces stimulating hormones that promote secretion by other
glands (sometimes called master gland)
Thyroid (neck) Produces thyroxine, which stimulates & maintains metabolic activities
Parathyroid (neck) - Produces parathyroid hormone that helps maintain calcium ion level in
blood, which is necessary for normal functioning of neurons
adrenal glands (atop kidneys) Produce steroid hormones, ex. Cortisol, which is a stress hormone
pancreas (near stomach) Insulin and glucagon regulate blood sugar that fuels all behaviour
testes or ovaries Gonads in females & males, necessary for reproduction and development of
secondary sex characteristics (any physical characteristic developing at puberty which distinguishes between the
sexes but is not directly involved in reproduction)
 GENETICS AND BEHAVIOUR
Identical twins share all of the same
genes bc they develop from same
fertilized egg (zygote) so theyre
monozygotic twins
Fraternal twins share of the same
genes bc they develop from 2 different
fertilized eggs (zygotes) so theyre
dizygotic twins
Schizophrenia & general intelligence
are more similar in monozygotic twins.
If identical twins are separated at birth
and raised in diff enviro, behavioural
differences may reveal the contribution
of enviro to behaviour, similarities may
reveal the contribution of heredity
 TRANSMISSION OF HEREDITARY CHARACTERISTICS ACHIEVED BY BIOLOGICAL
PROCESSES (EX. FERTILIZATION, EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT)
Each DNA segment of a chromosome that determines a trait is a gene
Chromosomes carry info stored in genes to new cells during
reproduction
Normal body cells have 46 chromosomes, except eggs & sperm have 23
At fertilization, 23 chrom from sperm unite w 23 chrom from egg to form
a zygote w 46 chrom
IF the male contributes an X chromo, the baby is female, if the male
contributes a Y chrom, baby is male
(not all chrom determine sex, only one sex chrom, others might
determine eye colour, hair colour, etc).
SYNDROMES W
CHROMOSOMAL
ABNORMALITIES
Girls may have Turner syndrome: Unusually short with a webbed
neck, lack ovaries, and fail to develop secondary sex characteristics
at puberty
Usually normal intelligence, but typically evidence cognitive
deficits in arithmetic, spatial organization (ex. You would describe
an item moving form left to right, a person w this might start from
right to left), and visual form perception
Males have Klinefelters syndrome: I results from having XXY
zygote. Male secondary sex characteristics fail to develop at
puberty, but breast tissue does
Down syndrome: intellectual disability and have a round head,
flat nasal bridge, small round ears, fold in the eyelid, and poor
 TRANSMISSION OF HEREDITARY CHARACTERISTICS CONTINUED
Genetic makeup for a trait of an individual = genotype
Expression of the genes = phenotype
For traits determined by one pair of genes, if they are the same, the individual
expresses that phenotypic characteristic
If genes are diff, expressed gene is called the dominant gene & hidden gene is the
recessive gene
Recessive genes are responsible for syndromes:
Tay-Sachs Syndrome produces progressive loss of nervous function and death
in a baby
Albinism arises from a failure to synthesize or store pigment and also involves
abnormal nerve pathways to the brain, resulting in quivering eyes and the inability
to perceive depth or 3d with both eyes
Huntingtons disease involves degeneration of nervous system. Progressive
symptoms incl forgetfulness, tremors, jerky motions, loss of the ability to talk,
personality changes such as temoper tantrums, blindness, and death
 TRANSMISSION OF HEREDITARY
CHARACTERISTICS CONTINUED
Huntingtons disease involves degeneration of
nervous system. Progressive symptoms incl
forgetfulness, tremors, jerky motions, loss of the ability to
talk, personality changes such as temper tantrums,
blindness, and death
Phenylketonuria (PKU) results in severe irreversible
brain damage unless the baby is fed a special diet low in
phenylalanine within 30 days of birth, the infant lacks an
enzyme to process this amino acid which can build up
and poison cells of nervous system. Thus, heredity and
enviro interact to determine a trait
Recessive genes for colour blindness are located on
the X chromosome with no corresponding gene on the Y
chromosome so males show sex-linked traits like colour
KAHOOT!
Unit 3 and 4 review!