Chapter 8: Learning

Day 2
Learning: a relatively permanent change in an
organisms behaviour due to experience.
Q: How do we learn?

A: By association & experience!

When people learn

anything, some part of
their brain is physically
changed to record what
they have learned.
Associative Learning:
Definition: Learning that certain events occur together.
The events may be two stimuli (as in
classical conditioning) or a response and its
consequences (as in operant conditioning).

Humans & animals placed in new environments will have

trouble succeeding until they learn appropriate associations
and experiences.
Successful adaptation requires both nature (the right
genetic disposition) and nurture (a history of appropriate
learning).
Some humans and animals will never learn the appropriate
associations needed and will fail in their environment.
 3 Types of Associative Learning

Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)

Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)

Observational Learning (Albert

Bandura)
 Why is Pavlovs work important?
His research influenced a shift towards greater
objectivity in subject matter and methods.

Psychology at this time was made up of highly

subjective theories (i.e. consciousness) and was not
considered a credible field of study to others.

By studying objective and quantifiable physiological

events, Pavlovs theories were accepted by the
science community and helped to make psychology
more mainstream as a whole.
 Pavlov & Behaviorism
Pavlovs work provided the foundation for John B.
Watsons theory on human behavior.
Watson believed that although human behavior is
biologically influenced, it is mostly made up of conditioned
responses.

Behaviorism: The view that psychology should be

an objective science, that studies behavior without
reference to mental processes.
Most modern psychologists disagree with the second half
of the behaviorism definition.
They all agree that classical conditioning is a basic form of
learning. Form of adaptation to environment.
Watsons Little Albert Study
Albert was 11 months old and feared loud
noises.
Watson presented him with a rat to play with.
And struck a hammer on steel rod every
time Albert reached for the rat.
Albert would soon burst into tears at the sign
of a rat.
Albert generalized this fear to other small
animals (rabbits, dogs).
Showed that humans are easily
conditioned.
 Classical Conditioning
Definition:
A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli.
Pavlovs Famous Experiment:
1)Gave the dog the food. The dog salivated.

2)Produced a tone. The dog did not salivate.

The tone was neutral no response from dog.

3)Produced tone before giving food. Dog salivated because of food. (repeated many
times).

4) Produced tone with no food. Dog salivated.

 Pavlovs Terminology:
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that
unconditionally - automatically- triggers a response.
e.g. food
Unconditioned response (UCR): the unlearned
naturally occurring response to the unconditional
stimulus (UCS).
e.g. salivating
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): an originally neutral
stimulus that after conditioning is associated with
the unconditioned stimulus.
e.g. tone
Conditioned Response (CR): the response to a
previously neutral conditioned stimulus.
e.g. salivating
Examples of UCS & UCR
Unconditioned Stimuli (UCSs) and their associated
Unconditioned Reflexes/Responses (UCRs)
UCS UCR
food or acid in the mouth
salivation reflex
electric shock
withdrawal reflex
change in illumination
loud sudden noise pupillary reflex
air puff to the eye startle reflex
patella blow knee eye blink reflex
base of foot stroked
flexion(jerk) reflex
pepper inhaled
Babinski reflex
sneeze reflex
 Classical Conditioning
UCS UCR
Dog Bite Frightened

CS UCS UCR
Sight of Dog Dog Bite Frightened

CS CR
Sight of Dog Frightened
Classical Conditioning
Identify the UCS, UCR, CS & CR for the following
example: Edna is involved in a car crash. After
the crash, every time she hears brakes squealing,
her heart races.
Classical Conditioning
UCS UCR
Car Crash Racing Heart

CS UCS UCR
Squealing Car Crash Racing Heart
Brakes

CS CR
Squealing Racing Heart
Brakes
Pavlov found processes that influence Classical Conditioning:
1) Acquisition the timing of the initial pairing of the neutral stimulus with the unconditioned
stimulus is extremely important. If the time delay is too long between stimuli, the association
will not happen.

2) Extinction diminished responding that occurs

when the CS no longer signals an impending UCS.
This means that associations can be unlearned.

3) Spontaneous Recovery reappearance of an extinguished CR after only a brief pairing of the

CS with the UCS. Suggests that extinction sometimes only suppresses instead of eliminates.

It helps animals survive and reproduce by responding to cues that help it gain food, avoid
dangers, defeat rivals, locate mates and produce offspring.
5 processes that influence Classical Conditioning:
4) Generalization once a response has been conditioned
for a stimulus, similar stimuli elicit the same response. For
example, a rat learns that pressing a lever will result in
food when any colour of light is on, but not when the light is
off.

5) Discrimination learned ability to distinguish

between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant
stimuli. For example, the rat learns to press the
lever for food only when the light is a certain shade
of red. Presentation of different colored lights
following acquisition constitutes a test for
generalization.
 6. Higher-order conditioning: When a new
neutral stimulus becomes associated with the
conditioned stimulus. e.g. if the dogs learn to
associate a bell with food, higher order
conditioning would be for them to learn an
association between a light turning on and the
bell ringing. This is a second (and usually
weaker) conditioned stimulus.
Respondent vs Operant Behaviour
Through classical conditioning we learn to
associate different stimuli we do not control
and we respond automatically (respondent
behaviours).
Through operant conditioning we associate
our own behaviours (operant behaviours)
that operate on the environment to produce
consequences.
Skinner: Operant Conditioning
Definition: Type of learning in which
behavior is strengthened if followed by a
reinforcer or diminished if followed by a
punishment.
Skinners work
Skinner used Edward Thorndikes Law of effect as a basis for his work.
Law of effect: - if a response is followed by a pleasurable consequence,
it will tend to be repeated, and if followed by an unpleasant
consequence, it will tend not to be repeated.
Skinners Operant Chamber
Skinner
He died believing that cognitive processes
thoughts, perceptions, expectations do not have a
place in psychology.
He believed that thoughts and emotions are
behaviors that followed the same laws as other
behaviors.
He is criticized for his dehumanized view.
Skinner & Shaping
Skinners work explored the conditions that
foster efficient and enduring learning. He used
shaping to achieve his results.
Shaping reinforcers guide behavior toward
closer approximations of a desired goal.

Psychologists can use

shaping to see what animals
perceive.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement: any event that strengthens the
behavior.
Primary Reinforcement: innately reinforcing
stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological
need.
Conditioned Reinforcement: a stimulus that
gains its reinforcing power through its
association with a primary reinforcer (secondary
reinforcer).
Negative Reinforcement: innately reinforces by
its removal.
Check for understanding is this an
example of positive reinforcement,
negative reinforcement or punishment?
When you get the chicken pox you scratch
even though you can get scars from doing
so.
1st ask yourself what is the behaviour?
2nd ask is the behaviour increasing or
decreasing?
3rd have you removed a bad thing? (that is
negative reinforcement) or added a good
thing? (that is positive reinforcement)
Check for understanding is this an
example of reinforcement or punishment?
When you get the chicken pox you scratch
even though you can get scars from doing so.

Stimulus itchy
Response/Behaviour scratching
Negative reinforcement stopping the irritating
itch
 Overjustification problem with
conditioned reinforcement?
Overjustification effect: rewarding the person for what they
already like to do.
The person then sees the reward, rather than experiencing the
intrinsic motivation for performing the task.
The person may come to find they like doing the task less and
less.
 Motivation
Intrinsic motivation: desire to perform a
behavior for its own sake and to be effective.

Extrinsic motivation: desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of

punishment.

Which one is more effective and long-lasting?

Continuous reinforcement: desired reinforcement
is given every time.
Partial (intermittent) reinforcement: responses are only
sometimes reinforced.
There are 4 different schedules of partial reinforcement:
Fixed-ratio schedules: behavior reinforced after a set
number of responses.
Variableratio schedules: provides reinforcement with an
unpredictable number of responses.
Fixed-interval schedules: reinforces the first response
after a fixed time period.
Variable-interval schedules: reinforces the first response
after a varying time period.
 Punishment: an event that decreases the behaviour
that it follows.
Usually by administering an undesirable consequence (positive punishment) or
withdrawing a desirable one (negative punishment).

Punished behavior is not forgotten, it is only

suppressed.
The suppression reinforces the punishers behavior.
The punished behavior usually reappears in a safe
setting, away from the punisher.
Physical punishment may increase aggressiveness
by demonstrating that aggression is a way to cope
with problems.
 Intermittent Reinforcement
Schedules
Number of Skinners
responses
laboratory
Fixed Ratio
1000 pigeons
Variable Ratio
produced these
750
Fixed Interval response
Rapid responding
near time for
patterns.
reinforcement
500
Variable Interval
For people, as
for pigeons,
250 reinforcement
Steady responding
linked to
0
number of
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 responses
Time (minutes)
(ratio) produces
a higher
How to Make Punishment More Effective
1. Punishment should immediately follow
the behavior it is meant to punish.
2. Punishment should be consistent.
3. Punishment of the wrong behavior
should be paired, whenever possible,
with reinforcement of the right
behavior.
 Other Types of Learning
Cognitive Map: mental representation of
the layout of one's environment.

Latent Learning: learning that occurs but is not

apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate
it.
Insight:
the sudden perception of relationships
among various parts of a problem,
allowing the solution to the problem to
come quickly.
Cannot be gained through trial-and-error
learning alone.
Aha moment.
 Albert Bandura
Canadian.
Born 1925 in Northern Alberta.
B.A. in Psychology from UBC 1949.
Continues to work at Stanford U.
Was president of the APA 1973.
Behavioral Psychologist.
Banduras View
Learning would be exceedingly laborious
not to mention hazardous, if people had to
rely solely on the effect of their own
actions to inform them what to do
Learning by Observation
Definition: Learning by observing others.

Modeling: process of observing and

imitating a specific behavior.
Brain & Observation
Motor Neurons: frontal lobe neurons that
fire when performing certain actions or
when observing another doing so.
The brains mirroring of anothers action
may enable imitation, language learning
and empathy.
AP Psych Quiz Unit 6 learning
kahoot only 5 questions!