CHAPTER 18: SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGY

WE CANNOT LIVE FOR

OURSELVES ALONE. OUR
LIVES ARE CONNECTED BY A
THOUSAND INVISIBLE
THREADS.
 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
the scientific study of how we
think about, influence , and relate
to one another.
 SOCIAL THINKING

Attributing Behavior to Persons (dispositional) or to

Situations (situational)
Attribution Theory- the theory that we tend
to give a causal explanation for someones
behavior, often by crediting either the
situation or the persons disposition.
Attribution Theory Example: A car swerves
(negative behavior) in front of you while
driving, they are assumed to be either ill
(situational attribution) or a bad driver
(dispositional attribution); You then proceed
with caution (tolerant action) or speed past
(unfavorable reaction) with a dirty look.
 FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION
ERROR

the tendency for observers, when

analyzing anothers behavior, to
underestimate the impact of the
situation and to overestimate the
impact of personal disposition.
 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Foot-in-the-door-phenomenon- the tendency for those who have first

agreed to a smaller request to comply later with larger request.
Start small and build.

Foot-in-Door example:
sales person getting you to try a sample

Note: evil acts shape the self.

But so do acts of good will (Ex. Boost chairitable donations)
Act as if you like someone and you soon will.
Commit to happy acts and you will be happier.

Enables behaviour to escalate a trivial act makes the next act easier. Succumb to a temptation and you
will find the next temptation harder to resist.
 ROLE PLAYING AFFECTS
ATTITUDES
The Stanford Prison Experiment was an
attempt to investigate the psychological
effects of perceived power, focusing on
the struggle between prisoners and
prison guards
After a day or 2 the volunteers played
their roles and the simulation became
too real
guards developed attitudes and
devised cruel and degrading routines
Prisoners broke down, rebelled,
reigned causing Zimbardo (psychologist)
to end study after 6 days
 SOCIAL THINKING

Do our Actions Affect our Attitudes?

Cognitive Dissonance Theory- the theory that we act to reduce the
discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts
(cognitions) are inconsistent.
 COGNITIVE DISSONANCE

For Example: when our awareness of our attitudes and of our

actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by
changing our attitudes.

Fake it until you make it AA saying

*When attitudes follow behaviour, cognitive dissonance lessens*

 SOCIAL THINKING

Do our Attitudes Affect our Actions?

How our attitudes can be changed:
Peripheral Route Persuasion our attitudes can change
based on a snap judgment or incidental cues. e.g. we dont
like a certain type of cell phone but we see a picture of a
celebrity using that phone and we want it.
Central Route Persuasion relies on evidence, logic and
reasoned arguments to change our minds e.g. we start liking
a cell phone because we read statistics that indicate it offers
better options and performance
 SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Conformity and Obedience
Normative Social Influence- influence resulting from a persons desire to gain approval or avoid
disapproval.
Informational Social Influence- influence resulting from ones willingness to accept others
opinions about reality.
Normative Social Influence were sensitive to social norms we understand rules for accepted and
expected behaviour bc the price we pay for being different may be severe
Informational Social Influence Care less about what people think.

Conditions that strengthen obedience:

-one is made to feel insecure
-the group has at least three people
-one admires the groups status and attractiveness
-ones culture strongly encourages respect for social standards
 SOCIAL INFLUENCE

Group Influence
Social Facilitation- improved performance of tasks in the presence of
others; occurs with simple or well learned tasks, but not yet with tasks
which are difficult or not yet mastered.

Note: What you do well, you are likely to do even better when in front
of an audience, especially a friendly audience; what you normally find
difficult will be harder to do in front of an audience.
*When people observe us, we become aroused. This arousal
strengthens the most likely response within us
 SOCIAL INFLUENCE

Group Influence
Social Loafing - the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort
when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when
individually accountable.

Deindividuation - the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint

occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.
-For example: tribal warriors who depersonalize themselves with face
paints or masks are more likely than those with exposed faces to kill,
torture, or mutilate captured enemies.
 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Group Polarization the enhancement of
a groups prevailing attitudes through
discussion within the group.
- For example: it can amplify a sought-
after spiritual awareness or strengthens
the resolve of those in a self-help group.
 SOCIAL INFLUENCE

Group Influence
Group think- the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for
harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of
alternatives.
GROUPTHINK EXAMPLE:
President Kennedy had a plan to invade Cuba
with 1400 CIA- trained Cuban exiles, when the
invaders were captured and soon linked to the
US govt, Kennedy wondered how they couldve
been that stupid
To find out Janis (1982) studied the decision-
making procedures and discovered that advisors
had undue confidence in the Presidents plan and
so to preserve the good group feeling, any
dissenting views were suppressed or self-
censored, especially after Kennedy expressed
enthusiasm for the scheme.
 SOCIAL RELATIONS
Prejudice- Prejudgment

Prejudice- an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group

and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs,
negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.
- For example: In socially intimate settings (dancing, dating, marrying),
many people admit they would feel uncomfortable with someone of
another race
 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Stereotype- a generalized (sometimes somewhat

accurate) belief about a group of people.

- For example: A belief that all black people exclaim loudly

during church ceremonies: AMEN! and HALLELUIAH!
 SOCIAL RELATIONS
Prejudice:

-Ingroup Us-people with whom one shares a

common identity.

-Out group- Them-those perceived as

different or apart from ones ingroup.

-Ingroup bias- the tendency to favor ones

 SCAPEGOAT

-Scapegoat Theory-the
theory that prejudice
offers an outlet for anger
by providing someone to
blame usually those in
the out group
 AGGRESSION

Any physical behaviour or verbal

behaviour intended to hurt or destroy
3 biological influences:
1) Genetic
2) Neural
3) Biochemical
 GENETIC INFLUENCES OF AGGRESSION

Twin studies suggest that genes influence human

aggression
If one identical twin admits to having a violent
temper, the other will often independently admit
the same
Fraternal twins are less likely to respond similarly
Researchers are looking for genetic markers found
in those who commit the most violence (One is the
Y chromosome found in half the human population)
NEURAL INFLUENCES OF AGGRESSION

Animal and human brains have neural systems

that when stimulated, inhibit or produce
aggressive behaviour
Frontal lobe system inhibits aggression, making
aggression more likely if the system is damaged,
inactive, or disconnected
 BIOCHEMICAL INFLUENCES
Hormones, alcohol, and other substances in the blood
influence the neural systems that control aggression
High testosterone correlates with irritability, low
tolerance for frustration, assertiveness, and
impulsiveness qualities that predispose somewhat
more aggressive responses to provocation
Traffic between hormones & behaviour is two- way:
Testosterone heightens dominance & aggressiveness
but dominating behaviour also boosts testosterone
levels
 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Aggression
Just-World Phenomenon- the tendency of people to believe the
world is just and that people therefore deserve what they get and get what
they deserve
 Frustration Aggression
Principle- the principle
that frustration-the
blocking of an attempt to
achieve some goal-
creates anger, which can
In Canada and the United
States alone ,since 1978,
generate aggression.
some three dozen deaths
have been caused by
shaken machines falling
down and crushing
frustrated people.
 SOCIAL TRAP

Social Trap- a situation in which the conflicting parties,

by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become
caught in mutually destructive behavior.
Ex: Whalers reasoned that the few whales they took
away wouldnt threaten their species and if they didnt
take them that other whalers would anyway. Result:
Some species of whales became endangered.
 SELF- FULFILLING PROPHECY

an expectation about a
subject, such as a person
or event, can affect our
behavior towards that
subject, which causes
the expectation to be
realized.
 ATTRACTIVENESS

Peoples attractiveness is unrelated to

their self-esteem and happiness
Attractive judgments are relative
beauty is in the eye of the culture
Hoping to look attractive people in
different cultures have pierced their
noses, lengthened their necks, bound
their feet, dyed or painted their skin and
hair, gorged themselves to achieve a
full figure or liposuctioned fat to achieve
a slim one, etc.
 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Mere Exposure Effect- the phenomenon that

repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases
liking of them.
Proximity provides opportunities for aggression
but much more often it evokes liking.
Studies reveal that people are more likely to like,
and even marry those who live in the same
neighbourhood, who sit nearby in class, who work
in the same office, etc.
 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Romantic Love
Passionate Love- An aroused state
of intense positive absorption in
another, usually present at the
beginning of a love relationship.

Companionate Love- The deep

affectionate attachment we feel for
those with whom our lives are
intertwined.
 2 KEYS TO ENDURING
RELATIONSHIPS:

Equity- A condition in which people receive from a

relationship in proportion to what they give it. True for lovers,
parents and children, and friends.
Give and get emotional support, promote and care about
anothers welfare, share self and possessions.
Self-Disclosure- Revealing intimate details about oneself to
others.
Our likes/dislikes, dreams/worries, proud/shameful
moments
 ALTRUISM

Altruism- Unselfish regard

for the welfare of others.
Example: during the 9/11
attack while people fled
down, firefighters surged
upwards to save lives.
 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Bystander Effect- The tendency for any given bystander to be

less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.

Social Exchange Theory- The theory that our social behavior is

an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits
and minimize costs. Example: when thinking about donating
blood, You ponder the cost of doing so (time, discomfort, and
anxiety) against the benefits (reduced guilt, social approval,
good feelings)
 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Peacemaking- Cooperation,
communication and conciliation
Superordinate Goals- shared goals that
override differences among people and
require their cooperation.
--> Cooperative contact not just mere
contact
 GRIT

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-

Reduction (GRIT): a strategy designed to decrease
international tensions.
One side announces its recognition of mutual interests and its
intent to reduce tensions then initiates 1 or 2 small acts
Opens the door for reciprocation by the other party
Ex. President Kennedys gesture of stopping atmospheric
nuclear tests began a series of reciprocated conciliatory acts
that culminated in the 1993 atmospheric test- ban treaty