INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR

ENGINEERING (MENB403)
Topic 2 Radiation Environment

1
 Radiation Environment
Contents:
Radiation Detection and Units
Radiation in Everyday Life
Usages of
Radiation/Radioisotopes in
Medical and Industrial
Applications
Radiation Effects and Dose
Estimates
Radiation Protection and
Shielding

2
Facts of Radiation
Radiation is a fact of life - all around us, all t
he time

There are two classes of radiation

Non-ionizing radiation

Ionizing radiation

The origin of the radiation

Natural radiation
Artificial (human-made) radiation
TYPES OF RADIATION

Often considered in three different groups

Alpha (), beta ()

Gamma (), X-ray

Neutrons
DISCOVERY OF X RAYS BY ROENTGEN (1895)

Wilhelm Conrad
Roentgen
DISCOVERY OF URANIUMS NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY

Antoine Henri Becquerel Marie Curie

BASIC TERMS ON RADIATION

Activity: the quantity of radioactive material present a

t a given time
Unit: becquerel (one disintegration per second)
Simbol: Bq
Old unit: curie (Ci)

More information on terms: IAEA safety Glossary

http://www-ns.iaea.org/standards/safety-glossary.ht
m
RADIATION DOSES AND UNITS
 ConversionF
ConversionF
actor
actor
(Sv
(Sv Bq
Bq-1-1))
Activity
Activity
(Bq)
(Bq)

wR wT
Absorbed
Absorbed Equivalent
Equivalent Effective
Effective
Dose
Dose Dose
Dose Dose
Dose
(Gy)
(Gy) (Sv)
(Sv) (Sv)
(Sv)
Fluence
(cm
(cm-2-2))

Conversion
Conversion
Factor
Factor
(Sv
(Sv cm
cm22))

9
Natural Background ANNUAL DOSE
mSv/year

Few people
In few areas ~100 VERY HIGH

Many people
In many areas TYPICALLY HIGH
~ 10

Majority of people
around the world AVERAGE

~ 2.4
MINIMUM

~1
nternational Safety Standards

The IAEA is authorized to establish or

adopt standards of safety for
protection of health and minimization
of danger to life and property, and to
provide for the application of these
standards.

The publications be means of which

the IAEA establishes standards are
issued in the IAEA Safety
Standards Series.

This series covers nuclear safety,

radiation safety, transport safety and
waste safety, and also general safety
(i.e. all these areas of safety).

Safety standards are coded according

IAEA published Fundamental Safety
to their coverage: nuclear safety (NS),
Principles as
radiation safety (RS), transport safety Safety Fundamentals
11
(TS), waste safety (WS) and general No. SF-1 in 2006.
IAEA Safety Principles
SAFETY OBJECTIVE:
The fundamental safety objective is to
protect people and the environment
from harmful effects of ionizing
radiation.
Principle 1: Responsibility for safety
The prime responsibility for safety must rest
with the person or organization responsible for
facilities and activities that give rise to
radiation risks.

Principle 2: Role of government

An effective legal and governmental
framework for safety, including an
independent regulatory body, must be
established and sustained.

Principle 3: Leadership and management

for safety
Effective leadership and management for
safety must be established and sustained in 12
IAEA Safety Principles
Principle 4: Justification of facilities and
activities
Facilities and activities that give rise to
radiation risks
must yield an overall benefit.

Principle 5: Optimization of protection

Protection must be optimized to provide the
highest level of safety that can reasonably be
achieved.

Principle 6: Limitation of risks to

individuals
Measures for controlling radiation risks must
ensure that no individual bears an
unacceptable risk of harm.

Principle 7: Protection of present and

future generations
People and the environment, present and
future, must be protected against radiation 13
IAEA Safety Principles
Principle 8: Prevention of accidents
All practical efforts must be made to prevent
and mitigate
nuclear or radiation accidents.

Principle 9: Emergency preparedness and

response
Arrangements must be made for emergency
preparedness and response for nuclear or
radiation incidents.

Principle 10: Protective actions to reduce

existing or unregulated radiation risks
Protective actions to reduce existing or
unregulated radiation risks must be justified
and optimized.

14
nternational Safety Standards

A lot of countries, including Japan, performs law

maintenance & revision for the regulation of radiation
application and protection based on the
recommendation of the ICRP.

On the other hand, IAEA publish the SAFETY SERIES

for the purpose of providing a common base about the
radiation safety to the member nation.

BSS is one of the most important publications of

SAFETY SERIES.

As well as the recommendation from ICRP, BSS is 15also

BSS is International Basic
Safety Standards for
Protection against
Ionizing Radiation and for
the Safety of Radiation
Sources.

The newest version of BSS

was approved by the board
of directors in IAEA in 1994,
and it was then published by
IAEA in 1996.

This is the cover image of

international BSS published
in 1996.
16
asic Concept of Radiation Safety
International Commission on Radiation Protec

The newest recommendation of ICRP is the Recommendations of

International Commission on Radiological Protection, Publication
103. Annals of the ICRP, Vol. 37, Nos. 2-4 (2007).

The ICRP is the primary body in protection against ionizing radiation.

The ICRP is a registered charity and is thus an independent non-

governmental organization created by the 1928 International
Congress of Radiology to advance for the public benefit the science of
radiological protection.

The ICRP provides recommendations and guidance on protection

against the risks associated with ionizing radiation, from artificial
(radiation) sources widely used in medicine, general industry and
nuclear enterprises, and from naturally occurring sources.

17
RADIATION & RADIOISOTOPES APPLICATIONS

Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) Environmental Science

Life Science
Material Science
Geological Science
Archeology and Forensic Science
Nuclear Materials

Radioisotope Production For medical, industrial and agriculture

Application

Small Angle Neutron Scattering Structural studies of materials related to

metals, ceramics, polymers and biology
(SANS)
Neutron Radiography (NR) Non-destructive testing

Education Reactor physics and engineering

Reactor instrumentations
Reactor utilization
Nuclear materials
Radiation source

Manpower Training Reactor operation and maintenance

Nuclear safety

18
IN THE BEGINNING
The science of atomic radiation, atomic ch
arge and nuclear fission was developed fro
m 1895 1945

Henri Bacquerel Pierre and Marie

Discovery of
178Uranium was 189
ionizing radiation 189 found and
demonstrated that
189Curie gave the
name
9 discovered 5 by Wilhelm
Roentgen 6
pitchblende emits B
and A radiation 7radioactivity for
the phenomenon
NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIVES

Medical
Diagnostic, therapeutic, sterilization
Industry
Radiography, tracers, gauging radiation proces
sing
Food and agriculture
Food preservation, tracers, mutation
Research
Tracers
NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY IN MEDICINE
RI in medicine are used either in liquid for
m (radiopharmaceuticals), for diagnosis an
d therapy or as solid sealed sources for the
rapy mainly for cancer. RI also find extern
al applications in in vitro diagnosis (immun
oassays)
RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS
RP are used for diagnostic imaging studies
The RI Tc-99m is used in more than 80% o
f the diagnostic imaging studies for assessi
ng the dynamic function of various organs
and localization of infections.
WHAT ARE RADIOPHARMACEUTICAL
S?
Chemical/biologi Radioisotope
cal (e.g. 99mTc, Iodine-131
(e.g. carrier tracer
MDP/antibody)

Radiopharmaceutical
(e.g. 99mTc-Antibody)
TYPES OF RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS
Prepared products
I-123 capsules
Ga-67 citrate
Tl-201 chloride
Xe-133 gas
Tc-99m pertechnetate
Kits for preparation of Tc-99m products
DTPA
MDP
MAG3
sestamibi
products requiring significant manipulation.
Cr-51 RBC's
Tc-99m RBC's
Tc-99m WBC's
In-111 WBC's,
In-111 Platelets
RADIOPHARMACEUTICAL KITS
Offers the convenience o
f on site preparation
What are kits?

the active pharmaceutic

al ingredient (API) that do
not contain radioactivity.
Sterile, pyrogen free, free

ze dried and stored unde

r nitrogen in sealed vials.
 (for renogram)
- tubular secretion
- elimination half-
life

MDP scan
(for bone scan) Na99mTc04 (for thyroid
- structure unknown scan)
- strong avidity to - similar charge/radius
hydroxyapatite ratio with iodine
crystals in bones
A) Graves disease; B) Thyroiditis;
C) Adenoma; D) Normal
Saw, Maung Maung, Cosmos 8.01 (2012):
(for myocardial perfusion
scan)
- lipophilic, cationic
- potential drive diffusion
across
sarcolemmal membrane
(for brain perfusion scan)
- neutral lipophilic complex, Log
Poct1.9
- glutathione-mediated
(for myocardial perfusion scan)
- lipophilic, cationic
- affinity to negative membrane
potential
of mitochondria of myocytes
HMPAO. Left hereditary
schizophrenia; middle untreated
depression; Right - Cosmos
Saw, Maung Maung, healthy8.01 (2012):
99mTc-MAA (for lung imaging 99mTc-DTPA (for
and pulmonary perfusion) assessing GFR and
- Structure unknown renal perfusion)
- Labeling of human serum - Hydrophilic and low
albumin with technetium MW
- Accumulation in lungs due to
size
LABELED PROTEIN- SOMATOSTATIN RECEPTOR

Octreoscan
Indium-111-Pentetreotide
(Octreoscan(R) - intense tracer
localization in the pancreatic
Zolle, Ilse, ed. Springer, mass (arrow head) with diffuse
2007. liver metastases.
 NeoTect

Tc-99m depreotide is a peptide analogue

that preferentially binds to somatostatin
receptors.

Technetium (99mTc)-fanolesomab used in the diagnosis of

appendicitis.
Zolle, Ilse, ed. Springer,
RI IN THERAPY
Targeted radionuclide therapy to deliver selecti
ve radiation doses to target tissues.
Compared with gamma radiation, and radia
tions have only very limited ranges in soft tissues.
Treatment is local, destroying the cells only in the dis
eased tissues where the RP accumulates.
Therapeutic radionuclides:
B-emitters; Lu-177, Re-186, Re-188, Ir-192, Ho-166,
Sr-89, Y-90, Sm-153, Cu-67.
Alpha emitter; Ac-225/Bi-213, Ac-227/Ra-223
RI IN THERAPY
Radioactive sealed sources are widely used fo
r teletherapy and brachytherapy of cancer.
Teletherapy: Transcutaneous irradiation with the u
se of a particle accelerator or the already obsolete
Co-60 radioactive source.
Brachytherapy: the radioactive source is in direct c
ontact with the target tissue, for a more localized tr
eatment.
Main RI used in brachytherapy are Ir-192, Cs-
137, I-125, Au-198, Ru-106 and Pd-103.
BRACHYTHERAPY

Figure taken from Medscape websit

 < 20 MeV 20 35 MeV > 35 MeV

Positron- PET, SPECT and Radionuclides

emitting therapeutic for
radioisotopes radionuclides radiotherapy
PET Ge-68, In-111 & Practically all
radioisotopes I-123, Tc-99m, PET & SPECT
F-18, C-11, N- 103, Y-86, I-124 tracers. Most
13, O-15 Medium to long suited for
Short half-life half-lives industrial &
On-site location commercial
application.
ADVANTAGES OF ACCELERATOR-BASED RADIOISOTOPE
PRODUCTION

No use of weapons-grad
e uranium
Starting material is stable
and non-radioactive
Little to no creation of nu
clear waste
Ease of operation
PET IN ONCOLOGY
PET in Cardiology

Healthy Heart Diseased Heart

PET IN NEUROLOGY

Addicts

Non-
addicts
F-DOPA labeled amino acid
used to detect dopamine
deficiency

C--CFT is useful for

11

studying dopamine transporter

(DAT) as a marker of
psychiatric and neurological
disorders

Healthy Parkinson
s
Disease
In Alzheimers decreased metabolism can be detected
through a scan.
NEW CYCLOTRON PRODUCED RADIOISOTOPES FOR DIA
GNOSTIC AND THERAPY: DIAGNOSTIC

Radionucli Half-life Uses

de
Copper-64 12.7 h PET imaging and targeted
radiotherapy
Gallium-67 78.3 h tumor diagnosis
Indium-111 2.8 days diagnostic tag
Iodine-123 13.2 h SPECT thyroid
Iodine-124 4.18 dosimetry, endotherapy and PET
days imaging
Thallium- 3.06 cardiology
201 days
NEW CYCLOTRON PRODUCED RADIOISOTOPES
FOR DIAGNOSTIC AND THERAPY: -EMITTERS

Radionuclide Half- Remarks

life
Lutetium-177 Neuroendocrine tumours
(Lu-177) Commonly produced by high flux
6.71d nuclear reactor, to increase
availability, possible production using
cyclotron
Copper-67 Decays by low energy beta particles
(Cu-67) 61.9h Treatment of small tumours up to 5
mm in diameter
Rhenium-186 Can either be reactor of cyclotron
(Re-186) produced
3.77d
-emitting radionuclide with
emission
Rhenium-188 Generator or cyclotron produced
16.9h
(Re-188) high energy -emitting radioisotope
Male, 56 years old, with pancreatic NET and multiple liver metastases, 68Ga-DOTA-TOC PET/CT
before therapy (a) and after therapy using therapeutic radionuclide (b). Figure taken from
Filice, A., et al. Journal of Oncology 2012 (2012).

Treatment with 177Lutetium-DOTA-TOC in a patient with rectal carcinoid demonstrating effect of

treatment over time. Figure taken from berg K. Theranostics 2012; 2(5):448-458
NEW CYCLOTRON PRODUCED RADIOISOT
OPES FOR DIAGNOSTIC AND THERAPY: TA
RGETED -THERAPY (TAT)
Alpha radiation has high-ene
rgy transfer to cancer cells ov
er several cell diameters.
Alpha emitting radioisotope
can be specifically cytotoxic
to cancer cells
Best suited to cancer microm
etastases, leukaemia and lym
phoma

Huang, Chen-Yu, et al. Computational and mathematical methods in

medicine 2012 (2012).
NEW CYCLOTRON PRODUCED RADIOISOT
OPES FOR DIAGNOSTIC AND THERAPY: TA
RGETED -THERAPY (TAT)
Radionuclide Half-life Remarks
Actinium-225 10d Produced via the 226Ra (p,2n)
(Ac-225) 225
Ac reaction
Emission of four -particles in
serial decay
Astatine-211 7.2h clean -emitter (100%
(At-211) decay)
High efficiency of treatment and
limited toxicity at low doses
CYCLOTRON-PRODUCED TC-99M:
GLOBAL SHORTAGE OF MO/TC-99M
99mTc used in 80% of all nuclear medicine procedures.
99mTc is currently produced by a relatively small number of react

ors.
Critical Appx. %
Reacto
Location ity worldwide 99Mo
r
date production
NRU Chalk River, Canada 1957 40
Petten, the
HFR 1961 30
Netherlands
BR2 Mol, Belgium 1961 10
OSIRIS Saclay, France 1966 10
Pelindaba, South
SAFARI 1965 10
Africa
Two aging nuclear reactors (NRU and HFR), were shut down rep
eatedly for extended maintenance periods - culminating in a wor
ldwide shortage.
CYCLOTRON-PRODUCED TC-99M
Tc-99m can be produced directly in a cyclotron by b
ombarding a molybdenum-100 (Mo-100) target with
a proton beam.
100Mo (p,2n) 99mTc
19-24MeV proton energy
36 hours long
Feasibility studies to produce 99m Tc have been prove
n experimentally.
2,590 GBq (70 Ci) of 99mTc, two 6-h bombardments using
high-current medium-energy (500 A, 24 MeV) cyclotr
on
Head to head comparison between generator and
cyclotron produced Tc-99m yielded identical
images

Generat Cyclotro Generat Cyclotro Generat Cyclotro

or n or n or n
produce produce produce produce produce produce
d d d d d d

Cyclotron produced Cyclotron produced

Generator produced Generator produced

Gurin, Brigitte, et al. Journal of Nuclear Medicine 51.4

RI IN INDUSTRY
Modern industry uses radioisotopes in a variety of wa
ys to improve productivity and, in some cases, to gain
information that cannot be obtained in any other way.
Sealed radioactive sources are used in industrial radi
ography, gauging applications
Short-lived radioactive material is used in flow tracing
and mixing measurements.
Gamma sterilization is used for medical supplies, som
e bulk commodities and, increasingly, for food preser
vation.
EXAMPLES OF RI USAGE IN INDUSTRY

Radiotracers Sealed sources Nucleonic control

Leak detection -scanning system (NCS)
Mixing/blending studies Neutron back scattering Thickness gauge
Residence time Transmission tomography Density gauge
distribution Blockage location etc. Level gauge
Flow rate measurements Moisture gauge
Corrosion/wear
monitoring
Sediment movement
Inter-well tracer test
Material inventory
Emission tomography
SEALED SOURCE FOR GAUGING
Radiation is attenuated by matter between t
he radioactive source and a detector. Detec
tors can be used to measure this reduction.
used to gauge the presence or the absence, or
measure the quantity or density material betwe
en the source and the detector.
Sealed sources of Cs-137, Co-60, Am-241, Kr-3
5, Pm-147, Sr-90/Y-90, Tl-204, Cf-252, Ni-63, F
e-55, Cd-109, Co-57 are used in NCS.
GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY
Gamma Radiography works in much the sa
me way as x-rays screen luggage at airport
s.
Uses small pellet of radioactive material in a se
aled titanium capsule.
The capsule is placed on one side of the objec
t being screened, and some photographic film
is placed on the other side
show flaws in metal castings or welded joints.
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT)
Non-destructive testing
an extension of gamma radiography
Examples of RI used:
ytterbium-169 tests steel up to 15 mm thick a
nd light alloys to 45 mm,
iridium-192 is used on steel 12 to 60 mm thic
k and light alloys to 190 mm.
GAMMA STERILIZATION
Co-60 in the form of high intensity source i
s the main isotope for radiation processin
g.
Cobalt-60 is an energetic gamma emitter
Medical equipment sterilization, food irradiati
on, wool
Kills bacteria and does not damage packaging
RADIOTRACERS IN INDUSTRY
Uniqueness
Tracers uniquely define material coming from a specific sourc
e
Chemical analog
All isotopes have the same chemistry
Limited memory effect
RI are stable and decay at a known rate
Minimal mass of tracer
Addition of tracer will not alter the system being studied
External monitoring
Detectors permit real time measurements
RADIOTRACERS IN INDUSTRY
Examples of radiotracers used:
H-3, Br-82, Hg-203, Tc-99m, La-140, Na-24 I-
131.
Radiotracers are used in:
Oil fields and refineries
chemical and metallurgical industries
wastewater purification installations
AN ANNUAL NATURAL RADIATION DOSE FROM
THE EARTH OF MANY PARTS OF THE WORLD

61
adiation Dose

Dosimetric quantities are needed to assess the radiation exposures to

humans and other living-species in a quantitative way.

This is necessary in order to describe doseresponse relationships

for radiation effects which provide the basis for risk estimation in
radiological protection.
Absorbed dose, D, is the basic physical quantity for radiological
protection.
D [Gy] means the absorbed energy [J] from radiation per unit mass
[kg] of material.

62
Radiation Dose
(cont.)
Radiation causes ionization and excitation of substances, including
human body.

And various kinds of intermediate chemical species will formed, such

as free radicals and ionic species.

Then, many of intermediate species attack to DNA, resulting

strand-breaks (SSB or DSB), oxidative degradation and/or
elimination of base (Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, and Guanine)
of DNA occur.

Some part of such damages of DNA will be repaired normally, but

some of damages of DNA will be miss-repaired, And the other part of
DNA can not be repaired and damage of cell, tissue or organ may
occur.

So, relatively low-dose of radiation can

63
Radiation Dose
(cont.)
In practical applications, averaging of absorbed dose
over organ or tissue volumes is performed.

It is assumed that the mean value of absorbed dose in an

organ or tissue is correlated with radiation detriment
from probabilistic effects in the low dose range.

The averaging of absorbed doses in tissues and organs of

the human body and their weighted sum are the basis for
the definition of protection quantities.

64
he Equivalent Dose
The definition of protection quantities is based on the mean absorbed
dose, DT,R, in an organ or tissue T, due to radiation of type R.

The protection quantity equivalent dose, HT, is defined by

HT = (R) wRDT,R
where wR is the radiation weighting factor for radiation R.
These wR values are based on experimental data for the relative
biological effectiveness (RBE) of various types of radiations at low
doses, on biophysical considerations and on judgements.

65
he Effective Dose
The effective dose can be represented as,

E = (T) wTHT,
where wT is the the tissue weighting factor for radiation R and HT
is equivalent dose.

Compared to Publication 60 (ICRP, 1991b), some of the tissue

weighting factors, wT, have been changed on the basis of new
Table A.4.3. Proposed tissue weighting factors.
epidemiological data for cancer induction.
Tissue wT wT

Bone-marrow (red), Colon, Lung, Stomach, Breast, Remainder Tissues* 0.12 0.72
(Nominal wT applied to the average dose to 14 tissues)
Gonads 0.08 0.08
Bladder, Oesophagus, Liver, Thyroid 0.04 0.16
Bone surface, Brain, Salivary glands, Skin 0.01 0.04

* Remainder Tissues (14 in total): Adrenals, Extrathoracic (ET) region, Gall bladder,
Heart, Kidneys, Lymphatic nodes, Muscle, Oral mucosa, Pancreas, Prostate, Small
intestine, Spleen, Thymus, Uterus/cervix.

66
The Effective Dose
(cont.)
The body related protection quantities (equivalent dose (HT) and
effective dose (E)) can not be applied directly in radiation
monitoring as they are not directly measurable.

Operational quantities are measured instead for the assessment of

E and HT.

For external exposures, operational dose equivalent quantities

have been defined for area monitoring and individual monitoring.

Measurements with an area monitor are preferably performed free in

air, and personal dosimeters are worn on the body.

The radiation fields seen by these dosimeters differ and therefore

different operational dose quantities have been defined.

Dose equivalent quantities, based on doses to the depth of 10 mm

and 0.07 mm of the ICRU sphere or in the human body respectively,
have been recommended. 67
The Effective Dose
(cont.)
The annual effective doses of workers
and of members of the public are the
sum of the effective dose obtained
within one year from external exposure
and the committed effective dose from
radionuclide intake during this year.

68
 DOSE LIMITS

From ICRP Publ.103From BSS-IAEA (SS

69 No. 115
 DOSE LIMITS (CONT.)

Ref: BSS-IAEA (SS No. 115

Ref: ICRP Publ.103

70
ecay of Radionuclide
A radionuclide is an atom with an unstable nucleus,
which is a nucleus characterized by excess energy
available to be imparted either to a newly created
radiation particle within the nucleus or to an atomic
electron.

The radionuclide, in this process, undergoes

radioactive decay, and emits gamma ray(s) and/or
subatomic particles.
Radionuclides occur naturally, and can also be artificially produced.
These particles constitute ionizing radiation.

ln
2

71
Gamma-ray Source
Isotope Half-life Energies (keV)
Cobalt-57 270 days 122.1
Cobalt-60 5.27 years 1173.2, 1332.5
Sodium-22 2.6 years 511.0, 1274.5
Technetium 99m 6.01 hours 140

Beta-ray Source
Isotope Half-life Energies (keV)
Strontium-90 28.5 years 546.0

Alpha-particle Source
Isotope Half-life Energies (keV)
Polonium 210 138 days 5304.5

Multiple radiation emitter

Isotope Half-life Radiation types Energies (keV)
Cesium-137 30.1 years Gamma & beta G: 32, 661.6

B: 511.6, 1173.2
72
For example, Cesium-137 has its half-life of 30.1 years.

But, incase of intake of Cs-137, in the human body, Its

population must reduce more rapidly than its physically
defined half-life.

The reason is because Cs is excreted outside a body by

metabolism.

The effective half-life (Teff) of nuclides is estimated as

following,

1 / Teff = 1 / TPhys + 1 / Tbio

where TPhys is physically described half-life of Cs (= 30.1
years) and Tbio is half-life which is affected by biological
metabolism (in case of Cs, about 70 days). 73
 Influence of Radiation on Human Body

acute disorder; loss of

hair etc.
Deterministic effects
fetal
Physical influence disorder;
(with Threshold dose)
mental retardation etc.

cataract

cancer &leukemia
Probabilitic effects
(assuming, without Thresho
Genetic influence
genetic disorder

74
 Basic Concept of Radiation Safety

To reduce the dose less than threshold and prevent the

deterministic effects.
Deterministic effects
(with Threshold dose)

obabilitic effects
suming, without Threshold)

To reduce the dose as low as reasonably achievable

(ALARA),
assuming that probabilistic effects have non-
75
threshold dose.
Radiation Protection
ICRP Pub. 103 maintains the Commissions three fundamental
principles of radiological protection, namely justification,
optimization, and the application of dose limits.

els of radiological protection

In the 1990 Recommendations, Pub. 60, it was noted that, if
individual doses are well-below the threshold-dose for harmful
deterministic effects, the effect of a contribution to an individual dose
from a source is independent of the effects of doses from other
sources.

For many purposes, each source or group of sources could usually be

treated on its own.

Next, it is necessary to consider the exposure of individuals exposed

by this source or group of sources.

This procedure is called a source-related approach.

In Pub. 103, ICRP emphasises the primary importance of the source-
related approach, because action can be taken on a source to assure
76
the protection of a group of individuals from that source.
pes of exposure situations
The ICRP intends its Recommendations to be applied to all sources
and to individuals exposed to radiation in the following three types
of exposure situations which address all conceivable
circumstances.
Planned exposure situations are situations involving the
deliberate introduction and operation of sources.
Planned exposure situations may give rise both to exposures that are
anticipated to occur (normal exposures) and to exposures that are
not anticipated to occur (potential exposures).

Emergency exposure situations are situations that may occur

during the operation of a planned situation, or from a malicious act,
or from any other unexpected situation, and require urgent
action in order to avoid or reduce undesirable consequences.

Existing exposure situations are exposure situations that

already exist when a decision on control has to be taken, including
prolonged exposure situations after emergencies.
77
els of radiological protection
For planned exposure situations, the source-related restriction to
the dose that individuals may be affected is the dose constraint.
For potential exposures, the corresponding concept is the risk
constraint.

For emergency and existing exposure situations, the source-

related restriction is the reference level.

The concepts of a dose constraint and reference level are used

in the process of optimization of protection to assist in ensuring that
all exposures are kept as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA),
societal and economic factors being taken into account.

Therefore, constraints and reference levels can be described as

key parts in the optimization process that will ensure appropriate
levels of protection under the prevailing circumstances.
In the specific case of planned exposure situations, separate
restrictions on the sums of the occupational doses and on the sums
of the public doses are required.
ICRP refers to such individual-related restrictions as dose limits
78
Radiation Shielding
THREE important principles to reduce the
external exposure of radiation.
The longer the distance between radiation source
and you, the less the internal exposure of radiation.

The dose rate of exposure is inversely proportional to the

distance from radiation source, assuming the source have
no volume (size).

The shorter operating (treating) radiation- work, the

less the internal exposure of radiation.

If you have some difficulty to reduce the duration of

treating radiation source and difficulty to keep a sufficient
distance from radiation source, you should 79use
of radiation which have high penetration (X-ray and -
The longer the distance between radiation source and you, the
less the internal exposure of radiation.
The dose rate of exposure is inversely proportional to the distance
from radiation source, assuming the source have no volume (size).

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 The shorter operating (treating) radiation- work, the less the
internal exposure of radiation.

So, you must make enough plans about work contents, a procedure
beforehand and do a simulation, and it is necessary to finish
radiation-work as possible in a short time.

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 Appropriate shielding materials.
Youd better to perform "the radiation shielding" as much as possible near
source.
Pb, W, Fe or other
Paper heavy materials

Al or other light materials

Water or paraffin
(including much
amount of hydrogen)
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Radiation Measurements
As you know, radiation measurements are based on interaction
between radiations & materials, especially ionization, and to
transform the information of radiations to electric signal, photo-
emission or change in properties of materials.

Information of radiations includes amount of radiation (Dose), energy

of radiation (For example energy of -ray), types of radiations (-, -,
- & X-rays, neutron .) .

The interaction between base material of detector

& radiations

Intended radiation has its electric charge or not?

If radiation has no charge, you have to convert it to charged particles.

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What is the ideal radiation detector?
There can be four important factors; Energy response, Timing
response,
Detection efficiency, and Price.

Energy response
Proportional characteristics of radiation energy and the height
of output-wave
of the radiation.
High energy-resolution.

Timing response
High-speed response; short dead-time, rapid collecting of
electric charge.

Detection efficiency
The relationship between amount of incident radiation &
amount of output-pulse.

Price 84
 Energy response

Proportional characteristics of radiation energy

and the height of output-wave of the radiation

Depends on;

The loss before incidence of radiation into the base material of

detector

The loss of conversion to ion-pair in the base material

The loss during the traveling the charged particles to electrode

of detector
trapping, recombination and leakage of electric charge

Energy-resolution

Affected by the statistics precision of a generated electric charge.

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 Timing response

Proportional characteristics of radiation energy

and the height of output-wave of the radiation

Depends on;

The mobility of ion pair (hole and electron)

The distance and the potential difference between the

electrodes

Base material of detector; Gas, Liquid, or Solid?

The important strategies are;

The selection of acting charge, Dont use a slow electric

charge.
The development of a fast electronic circuit. 86
 Detection
efficiency
In cases of electron and charged particles,
You can obtain almost 100 % of efficiency.

In cases of X-, -rays or neutron,

The interaction-efficiency is depends on Density, Atomic number

Leakage of radiation and charge can be occur.

In several case, you need scale-up of detector.

And, the calibration of the energy-dependent detection

efficiency is necessary.

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Radiation Detector

The classification by the basic material

gas detector
scintillation detector
semiconductor detector
superconductor detector

The classification by the measurement subject

charged particle detector
X-rays / -ray detector
neutron detector

online detector

off-line detector

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WIDELY USED DOSIMETERS
Effective
Effective Dose
Dose Doses
Doses in
in the
the area
area Survey
Survey contamination
contamination

89
Semiconductor
Detector
rge is generated in Conduction Band, by Radiation Energy.

d gap is about several eV.

leted layer is necessary.

band gap radiation

Energy of radiation
depleted layer

90
 Various Semiconductor Detector
Semiconduc Ionization Electron Hole Operating
Band Gap
tor Energy mobility mobility Temp.
(eV)
(eV) (cm2/V/s) (cm2/V/s)

Diamond 5.5 13 2000 1600 High

4H-SiC 3.2 7.8 1000 115 High

HgI2 2.13 4.2 100 10 RT
GaAs 1.45 4.5 8800 400 RT
CdTe 1.47 4.4 1200 50 RT

Si 1.11 3.65 1900 500 RT Low

Ge 0.67 2.96 3800 1820 Liq. N2 Temp.

InSb 0.17 (1.1eV) 78000 750 Liq. He Temp.

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 Scintillation Counter Detector
Energy resolution is not good, but detection efficiency is higher than
HP Ge detector.

In Japan after Fukushima NPP accident, this kind of detection

system is important in order to check large amount of food samples!

To measure area dose To estimate specific activities of

134, 137-Cs, and 131-I

92
Thank You

Courtesy:
Yoshinobu IZUMI
Research Institute of Nuclear EngineerinG
University of Fukui

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