Chapter 6:

Mechanical Properties
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent
deformation occur? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?

Chapter
16-
 Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial

F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic

Chapter
26-
 Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

plastic
elastic + plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic

plastic
Chapter
36-
 Engineering Stress
Tensile stress, : Shear stress, :
Ft Ft F

Area, Ao Fs
Area, Ao

Fs
Ft
F Ft
Ft lb N = s F
= = 2f or 2
Ao
Ao in m
original area
Stress has units:
before loading
N/m2 or lbf /in2
Chapter
46-
 Common States of Stress
Simple tension: cable
F F
Ao = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F

Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy
Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft P.M. Anderson)

M Fs Ao
Ac
Fs

Ao
M
2R Note: = M/AcR here.
Chapter
56-
 OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (i)
Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao ( < 0 here).

Chapter
66-
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (ii)
Bi-axial tension: Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
> 0

z > 0 h< 0

Chapter
76-
 Engineering Strain
Tensile strain: Lateral strain:
/2
L
L
Lo Lo wo
wo

L /2
Shear strain:

x = x/y = tan

y 90 -
Strain is always
90 dimensionless.
Adapted from Fig. 6.1(a) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Chapter
86-
 Stress-Strain Testing
Typical tensile test Typical tensile
machine specimen

Adapted from
extensometer specimen Fig. 6.2,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

gauge
length

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials,
Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.) Chapter
96-
 Linear Elastic Properties
Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

Hooke's Law:
=E F
E

Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test

Chapter
106 -
 Poisson's ratio,
Poisson's ratio, :
L

metals: ~ 0.33 -
ceramics: ~ 0.25
polymers: ~ 0.40

Units: > 0.50 density increases

E: [GPa] or [psi]
< 0.50 density decreases
: dimensionless (voids form)

Chapter
116 -
 Mechanical Properties
Slope of stress strain plot (which is
proportional to the elastic modulus) depends
on bond strength of metal

Adapted from Fig. 6.7,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter
126 -
 Other Elastic Properties
M
Elastic Shear
modulus, G: G simple
torsion
=G test

M
Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
V V P P
P = -K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
= V
E E
G K
2(1 ) 3(1 2)
Chapter
136 -
 Youngs Moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda A FRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B.2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
40
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4

0.2 LDPE Chapter

146 -
 Useful Linear Elastic Relationships
Simple tension: Simple torsion:
2ML o
FL o Fw o
L
EA o EA o r o4 G
F M = moment
/2 = angle of twist
Ao
Lo Lo
wo

2ro
L /2
Material, geometric, and loading parameters all
contribute to deflection.
Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
Chapter
156 -
 Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress, at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

p engineering strain,

plastic strain Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter
166 -
 Yield Strength, y
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when p = 0.002
tensile stress,
y = yield strength
y

Note: for 2 inch sample

= 0.002 = z/z
z = 0.004 in

engineering strain,
p = 0.002 Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter
176 -
 Yield Strength : Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140) qt

1000
Yield strength, y (MPa)

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

700 W (pure)

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

600

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

Cu (71500) cw
500 Mo (pure)
Steel (4140) a
400
Steel (1020) cd Room temperature
300
values
Hard to measure ,

Al (6061) ag

Hard to measure,
200 Steel (1020) hr
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr Based on data in Table B.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
100
a = annealed
dry
70 PC
hr = hot rolled
60 Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 Al (6061) a PET
cd = cold drawn
40 PVC humid
cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered
20

LDPE
Tin (pure) Chapter
186 -
10
VMSE: Virtual Tensile Testing

Chapter
196 -
 Tensile Strength, TS
Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,

TS Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

F = fracture or
y
ultimate
engineering

strength
stress

Neck acts
Typical response of a metal
as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
Chapter
206 -
 Tensile Strength: Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

2000 Steel (4140) qt

AFRE(|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140)cw
Cu (71500) Si nitride
Cu (71500) hr Al oxide
300
Steel (1020)
Al (6061) ag
Ti (pure) a
Room temperature
200 Ta (pure)
values
Al (6061) a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber) Based on data in Table B.4,
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
40 PVC GFRE( fiber) a = annealed
Concrete PP
30 CFRE( fiber) hr = hot rolled
AFRE( fiber)
HDPE ag = aged
20 Graphite
LDPE cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
10 qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
wood ( fiber)
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
1 Chapter
216 -
 Ductility
Lf Lo
Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL x 100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress, larger %EL Ao
Lo Af Lf
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Engineering tensile strain,

Another ductility measure: Ao - Af

%RA = x 100
Ao

Chapter
226 -
 Toughness
Energy to break a unit volume of material
Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.

Engineering small toughness (ceramics)

tensile large toughness (metals)
stress,
Adapted from Fig. 6.13, very small toughness
Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain,

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
Chapter
236 -
 Resilience, Ur
Ability of a material to store energy
Energy stored best in elastic region

y
Ur d
0
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to

1
Ur y y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter
246 -
 Elastic Strain Recovery

y i D

y o
2. Unload
Stress

1. Load 3. Reapply
load
Strain

Adapted from Fig. 6.17, Elastic strain

Callister & Rethwisch 8e. recovery
Chapter
256 -
 Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
Large hardness means:
-- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
-- better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
Chapter
266 -
 Hardness: Measurement
Rockwell
No major sample damage
Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range
20-100.
Minor load 10 kg
Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

HB = Brinell Hardness
TS (psia) = 500 x HB
TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB

Chapter
276 -
 Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5

Chapter
286 -
 True Stress & Strain
Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched
True stress T F Ai T 1
True strain T ln i o T ln1

Adapted from Fig. 6.16,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter
296 -
 Hardening
An increase in y due to plastic deformation.

large hardening
y
1
y small hardening
0

Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
hardening exponent:
T K T n n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
true stress (F/A) true strain: ln(L/Lo)
Chapter
306 -
 Variability in Material Properties
Elastic modulus is material property
Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
Statistics
n
Mean xn
x
n
1
n

2 2
xi x
Standard Deviation s
n 1

where n is the number of data points
Chapter
316 -
 Design or Safety Factors
Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
Factor of safety, N Often N is
y between
working 1.2 and 4
N
Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.
d
y
working 1045 plain
carbon steel:
N y = 310 MPa Lo
220,000N TS = 565 MPa
5

d /4
2
F = 220,000N
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
Chapter
326 -
 Summary
Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches y.
Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

Chapter
336 -
 ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:

Core Problems:

Self-help Problems:

Chapter
346 -