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Earthquakes &

Seismic Hazards
Lecture
Outline
Broad Overview :
Plate Tectonics Theory
Philippine Tectonic Setting
Earthquakes
What is an earthquake?
Earthquake parameters
Location
Strength
Frequency
What are the seismic hazards?
How do we mitigate seismic
hazards?
How can we prepare for
Overview of PLATE TECTONICS
THEORY (late 1960s)

CONTINENTAL SEA FLOOR


DRIFT THEORY SPREADING THEORY
(Alfred Wegener) (H. Hess and R. Dietz)
(1912) (1950s)
STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
Earlier studies and evidence

Observed fitting of shorelines of continents


Shoreline configuration fit like jigzaw puzzles according to Alfred
Wegener in his Continental Drift Theory [1915]
Similarities of fossil plants and animals on continents that
are presently separated by huge bodies of water
CDT was a revolutionary idea at the time,
but many scientists found it hard to
accept this
Problem:
Sir Alfred Wegener could not give an
Explanation on how the continents can
drift away.

No mechanism was proposed at that time


to support his theory
World War II (1940s) and Post WWII-

Post-war researches of 1950s-1960s:


many deep sea explorations and surveys conducted

Resulted to vast amount of information about the


bottom of the ocean floor

Mid oceanic ridge (line of volcanoes at the bottom


of the sea where new materials are formed and extruded)
was discovered and mapped
Harry H. Hess and
Robert S. Dietz proposed
Location of the theory of sea floor
OCEANIC RIDGES spreading and ocean
crust recycling (1962)
SEA FLOOR SPREADING THEORY

-the volcanic activity under the sea


causes magma from beneath the
earths crust to rise to the surface
forming a very long ridge along
the middle of the oceans that
separate the large continents
1968- expedition of Glomar Challenger, showed
evidence that rocks near the oceanic ridges are young;
magnetic signatures
Confirmation of Magnetic Reversal

Magnetite-rich basalt can


distort compass needle
Magnetometers used
during World War II
show odd magnetic
variations in the ocean
floor
Magnetite align
themselves with the
orientation of the Earths
present magnetic field.
a. jig-saw fit of the a. Age of rocks are younger
outlines of the near the mid-oceanic ridges
continents and becomes older away from
b. coast of one the ridge
continent similar to
fossils found in rocks b. Pattern of magnetic signatures
near a coast across the of rocks at the ocean floor
ocean

CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY SEA FLOOR SPREADING THEORY


(Alfred Wegener)(1912) (H. Hess and R. Dietz) (1950s)

PLATE TECTONICS THEORY


(late 1960s)
RELATIONSHIP
OF
SEA FLOOR
SPREADING
and
SUBDUCTION

MANTLE

CORE
Plates Tectonics

The lithosphere is divided/ broken into pieces known


as tectonic plates that move relative to each other
What drives the plates ?

Heat source of mantle


convection:
Radioactive decay
Residual heat

Seafloor spreading vs
subduction

Mantle cells
1. Two (2) types of tectonic
plates according to
composition:

a. Oceanic crust- thinner but


denser
b. Continental crust- thicker
but lighter

2. Different types of plate


movements occur along the plate
boundaries
MAJOR TECTONIC PLATE BOUNDARIES

Convergent
Strike slip Divergent
1. Divergent Boundary -tectonic plates MOVE AWAY
from each other
1. Divergent Boundary
Continental Crust East African Rift and Red Sea Rift
1. Divergent Boundary
Oceanic crust Mid-oceanic
ridges
2. Convergent Boundary
-tectonic plates move TOWARD EACH OTHER; collision

Continent-
Continent
2. Convergent Boundary
A. Continent-Continent crust Ex. Indian Plate-Eurasian Plate
Collision Himalayas (earths highest mountain peaks)
2. Convergent Boundary
B. Ocean-Continent crust ex. Nazca Plate-South American
Plate - Andes (longest continental mountain range)
2. Convergent Boundary
C. Ocean-Ocean Crust Ex. Pacific Plate Philippine Sea
Plate Mariana Islands (Mariana Trench deepest trench)
3.Transform/ Strike-slip Boundary
-2 tectonic plates move sideways/ along each other
3.Transform/ Passive/ Strike-slip Boundary
-A. Right lateral or dextral transform fault San Andreas
Fault
3.Transform/ Passive/ Strike-slip Boundary
-B. Left lateral or sinistral transform fault Ex. Dead Sea
Transform Fault Dead Sea is the deepest hypersaline lake in
the world
Hot Spots
PLATE TECTONICS AND EARTHQUAKES
PLATE TECTONICS AND VOLCANOES
Pacific Ring of Fire
Why earthquakes occur in the Philippines

EQUATOR
Earthquakes in the Philippines Distribution of
> Magnitude 4 ACTIVE FAULTS and
1907-2000 TRENCHES
in the Philippines
TECTONIC SETTING OF THE
PHILIPPINE ARCHIPELAGO
Tectonic Setting of Caraga Region
WHAT IS AN EARTHQUAKE?
Natural
Artificial (ex.
A weak) to violent
explosions
shaking of the ground
produced by the sudden
movement of rock
materials below the
earths surface.
TYPES OF NATURAL EARTHQUAKES

1. Tectonic 2. Volcanic
- earthquakes produced - earthquakes produced
by sudden movement along by movement of magma
faults and plate boundaries beneath volcanoes
The Earthquake
Source Solid state Phase
Elastic
Rebound changes for Deep
Theory [H. Earthquakes
H. (>300 km depth)
Reid,1911] Olivine
Tectonic stresses transforms to a
in some region of denser spinel
the Earth have structure
accumulated to Transformational
the point of faulting
exceeding the
strength of the
material, leading
rapidly to fracture
The Earthquake
Elastic Rebound

Source
Theory
Particle Motion upon
passage of different types of
seismic waves
EQ Paramaters : Location

Dept
h

FOCUS vs.
Locating the Epicenter
Locating the Epicenter
Earthquake depth

0 to 70 kilometers Shallow
70 to 300 Intermediate
300 700 Deep

Common usage > 70 deep focus EQ

Determination of focal depth or


hypocenter more complicated but
also based on study of character and
arrival time of different phases of
EQ parameter 2 : Strength
of an Earthquake

Magnitude
Energy
Intensity
Peak Ground Acceleration
(PGA or g factor for
structural design)
Two ways of describing the strength of an
earthquake

1 . Intensity
perceived strength of an
earthquake based on relative
effect to people and
structures; generally higher
near the epicenter

2. Magnitude
based on instrumentally derived information
and correlates strength with the amount of
total energy released at the earthquakes
point of origin
Magnitude
<energy>
Compares logarithmic of
amplitude with distance from
epicenter
Types depending on
instrumentation:
M Local 0.1
lName Magnit
Description 1.0 Period (s)
ude Wood-
Anderson
type
seismograph
[T0 = 0.8s,
M Body 1.0
b Magnit =0.8,
5.0
ude Mag=2800]
M Surface 2
s Magnit 0
M ude
Momen >
w t 200
Magnit
Magnitude Logarithmic
Scale
Magnitude Logarithmic Scale

M5 EQ is 10 times bigger than M4 EQ


M6 EQ is 100 times bigger than M4 EQ
M7 EQ is 1000 times bigger than M4 EQ

And using the M-E relation of Gutenberg-


Richter (Log E = 1.5 M + 4.8) (E in joules)

M5 EQ is ~ 32 times stronger than M4 EQ


M6 EQ is ~ 1024 times stronger than M4
EQ
M7 EQ is ~ 32768 times stronger than M4
EQ
Estimating Maximum
Magnitude EQ Relation between
From Slemmons (1978)
Fault length and Rupture Length

For fault length > 280 kilometers


% rupture = 15.76 + 0.012 Fault Length
Rupture Length = % rupture x fault length

For fault length from 50 280 km


Rupture length = of Fault Length

From Well and Coppersmith (1994)

M = a + b x log (Rupture Length)


a = 5.08 0.10; b = 1.16 0.07
Estimating Maximum
Magnitude EQinterested to
Exercise (For those
compute later):

Estimate the maximum credible


earthquake given the length of the
following tectonic structures (Torregosa,
et. al, 2001):

Philippine Fault (Surigao Segment) = 75


kilometers
Philippine Faut (Davao Segment) = 143
kilometers
Philippine Trench = 1,258 kilometers
The INTENSITY of an
earthquake is
measured by:
whatwhat
feel during the
event people seesee
people

andand
severity and extent of
damage to
buildings/structures

condition of
ground failure
and the
presence of
other earthquake
hazards
associated
Different intensity scales were used in the evaluation of
during the event
Philliippine earthquakes particularly in the
1900 1934 : Rossi-Forel intensity scale of 10 used in the Philippines.
1935 - : Fr. Repetti modified the original Rossi-Forel to 9 1935
to 1996 : Philippine earthquakes until early 1996.
THE ROSSI-FOREL SCALE (ORIGINAL)
ROSSI-FOREL INTENSITY SCALE
(1900-1934) (ADAPTED)
I. Microseismic shock. Recorded by a single I. Hardly perceptible shock
(!935-1996)
seismograph of by seismographs of the same model, felt only by an experienced observer under
but not by several favorable conditions.
seismographs of different kinds: the shock felt by an II. number
Extremelyof persons feeble
at rest. shock
experienced observer. III.Very
felt by a feeble
small shock felt by
II. Extremely feeble shock. Recorded by several several persons
seismographs of different kinds; felt by a small number of at rest. Duration and direction may be
persons at rest. perceptible. Sometimes dizziness or
III. Very feeble shock. Felt by several persons at rest; nausea experienced.
strong enough for the duration to be appreciable. IV. Shock
V. Feebleof shock
moderate felt
IV. Feeble shock. Felt by person in motion; disturbance
of movable objects, doors windows, cracking of intensity
generally indoors, outdoors
felt generally by
everyone. Hangingobjects
by a few. Hanging objectsswing
swingslightly.
freely.
ceilings. VI. Overturning
Fairly strong
Creaking of frames of shock
houses.
of tall vases
and unstable
V. Shock of moderate intensity. Felt generally by general
objects. awakening of those asleep. Some
everyone; disturbance of furniture, beds, etc., ringing of frightened persons leave their houses.
Stopping of pendulum clocks. Oscillation
some bells. of hanging lamps. Slight damage to
VI. Fairly strong shock. General awakening of those very old or poorly built structures.
asleep; general ringing of bells; oscillation of chandeliers; VII.Strong shock
stopping
overturning of movable
of clocks; visible agitation of trees and shrubs; some
objects. General alarm, all run outdoors.
startled persons leaving their dwellings. Damage slight in well-built houses,
VII. Strong shock. Overthrow of movable objects; fall of considerable in old or poorly built
plaster; ringing of church bells; general panic, without structures, old walls, etc. Some landslides
damage to from
hills and steep banks. Cracks in road
buildings. surfaces.
IX.
VIII. Extremely
Very strongstrong
shock.shock.
Fall ofPartial of total
chimney; crackdestruction of
in the walls
some buildings.
of buildings.
VIII.Very strong shock
X. Shock of extreme intensity. Great disaster; ruins; people panicky. Trees
Modified Mercalli Intensity
Scale
MMI Shakin Full
Valu g
Severit
e y Description
I Not felt. Marginal and long period effects of large
earthquakes.
II Felt by persons at rest, on upper floors, or favorably
placed.
III Felt indoors. Hanging objects swing. Vibration like passing of light trucks. Duration estimated. May not be
recognized as an
earthquak
e.
IV Hanging objects swing. Vibration like passing of heavy trucks; or sensation of a jolt like a heavy ball striking
the walls.
motor carsStanding
rock. Windows, dishes, doors rattle. Glasses clink. Crockery clashes. In the upper range of IV, wooden
walls and frame creak.
V Ligh Felt outdoors; direction estimated. Sleepers wakened. Liquids move disturbed, some spilled. Small unstable
t objectsDoors
upset. displaced or close, open. Shutters, pictures move. Pendulum clocks stop, start,
swing,
change rate.
VI Moderat Felt by all. Many frightened and run outdoors. Persons walk unsteadily. Windows, dishes, glassware broken.
e Knickknacks,
etc., off shelves.
books,
Pictures off walls. Furniture moved or overturned. Weak plaster and masonry D cracked. Small
bells ring (church, school). Trees, bushes shaken (visibly, or heard to rustle).
VII Stron Difficult to stand. Noticed by drivers of motor cars. Hanging mural objects quiver. Furniture broken.
g Damage to including
masonrycracks.
D, Weak chimneys broken at roof line. Fall of plaster, loose bricks, stones, tiles,
cornices. Some cracks in masonry C. Waves on ponds; water turbid with mud. Small slides and caving in
along sand or gravel banks. Large bells ring. Concrete irrigation ditches damaged.
VIII Ver Steering of motor cars affected. Damage to masonry C; partial collapse. Some damage to masonry B; none to
y
stron masonry
stucco A. some
and Fall ofmasonry walls. Twisting, fall of chimneys, factory stacks, monuments, towers, elevated
g tanks. Frame
moved houses if not bolted down; loose panel walls thrown out. Decayed piling broken off. Branches
on foundations
broken from trees. Changes in flow or temperature of springs and wells. Cracks in wet ground and on steep
slopes.
IX viole General panic. Masonry D destroyed; masonry C heavily damaged, sometimes with complete collapse;
nt damaged.
masonry B(General
seriouslydamage to foundations.) Frame structures, if not bolted, shifted off foundations. Frames
racked. Serious damage to reservoirs. Underground pipes broken. Conspicuous cracks in ground. In alluvial
areas sand and mud ejected, earthquake fountains, sand craters.
X Ver Most masonry and frame structures destroyed with their foundations. Some well-built wooden structures and
y
viole bridges damage
Serious destroyed.
to dams, dikes, embankments. Large landslides. Water thrown on banks of canals, rivers,
nt lakes,shifted
mud etc. Sand and
horizontally on beaches and flat land. Rails
bent slightly.
XI Rails bent greatly. Underground pipelines completely out
of service.
XII Damage nearly total. Large rock masses displaced. Lines of sight and level distorted. Objects
thrown into the air.
Masonry A: Good workmanship, reinforced, especially laterally, and bound together by using steel, concrete, etc.; designed to resist lateral forces.;
Masonry B: Good workmanship, reinforced, but not designed in detail to resist lateral forces. Masonry C: Ordinary workmanship and mortar; no extreme weaknesses like failing to tie in at
corners, but neither reinforced nor designed against horizontal forces. Masonry D: Weak materials, such as adobe; low standards of workmanship; weak horizontally.
SURIGAO FEBRUARY
10 MAGNITUDE 6.7 EQ
ISOSEISMAL MAP

Intensity generally
decrease away from
epicenter
(Attenuation)

But could

a) Focus along
structures
b) Amplify on soft soil
formation
Magnitude Intensity Relationship

1.Gutenberg and Richter (1956)

Io = 1.5 M 1.5

2. Krinitzky and Chang (1975)

Io = 2 M 4.2
Magnitude Intensity Relationship

Typical Maximum
Magnitude
Modified Mercalli Intensity
1.0 - 3.0 I
3.0 - 3.9 II - III
4.0 - 4.9 IV - V
5.0 - 5.9 VI - VII
6.0 - 6.9 VII - IX
7.0andhigher VIIIorhigher
Caraga Seisimicity
35

30

25

20

15

10

M2 M3 M4 M5 M6
Surigao M6.7 Aftershocks
45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

M2 M3 M4 M5 M6
SEISMIC
HAZARDS
Dangers / damages
posed by earthquakes
EARTHQUAKE
HAZARDS

Ground Rupture

- Faulting
appearing in
and cutting
along the
surface of the
earth
GROUNDSHAKING
Hazards
Intense shaking may cause collapse of
structures
GROUNDSHAKING
Hazards
GROUNDSHAKING
Hazards

Punta Bilar Brgy. Hall


Stage

SPUS
GROUNDSHAKING
Hazards

Buckled Surigao City


Airport runway
Liquefact
ion where
Condition
unconsolidated, water-
saturated soil loses its
strength
Behavior of soil
during ground
shaking
When the ground loses strength,
anything built on top of it may sink
or tilt...
Damage houses under the Friendship
Bridge, Brgy. Sabang possibly due to
Landslide slope failure

Bernadette Village, Brgy.


Luna

Rock Fall, Brgy.


Binocaran, Malimono,
SDN
Landslide

Mt. Bagarabon, Mabua,


Surigao City

Brgy. Poctoy,
Surigao City
Tsuna
mi
giant sea
waves
caused by:
Of-shore
Earthquakes
Volcanic
Eruptions
Landslides
Meteor
Impacts
MAJOR SEISMIC HAZARDS

Ground faulting
Rupture maximum
Ground intensity
shaking soil failure
Liquefaction
slope failure
Landslides
waves
Tsunami
Mitigation
Seismic Hazard Assessment
and Mapping Information
campaign
Warning systems for tsunami
Ground Rupture
Active Faults Identification
Source Regions
Ground Shaking Hazard Assessment
design PGA
Probabilistic Approach
Deterministic Approach (single event)
Ground Failure Hazard Assessment
Liquefaction
Earthquake
Preparedness
Reading Campaigns
materials
What to do
before, during
and after an
earthquake
Earthquake
Drills
Tsunami drills
Lectures
What to do BEFORE an earthquake

Familiarize yourself with your


place of work and residence

Identify relatively strong parts of the


building where you can take refuge
during an earthquake:
door jambs
elevator shafts
sturdy tables

Learn to use fire extinguishers, first aid


kits, alarms and emergency exits. These
should be accessible/conveniently located
and properly marked.
What to do BEFORE an
earthquake
Prepare your place of work and
residence for the event
Strap heavy furniture to walls to
prevent sliding or toppling.

Store breakable items, harmful


Chemicals and flammable
materials
in lowermost shelves and secure
firmly.

Turn off gas tanks when not in


use.

Keep heavy materials in


lower shelves.
What to do DURING an earthquake
If inside a structurally sound
building, stay there!
Protect your body from falling debris by bracing
yourself in a doorway or by getting under a sturdy desk
or table.
What to do DURING an earthquake
If outside, move to an open area

Get away from power lines, Stay away from buildings


posts, walls and other structures with glass panes.
that may fall or collapse.
What to do DURING an earthquake
When driving a vehicle, pull to
the side of the road and stop
Do not attempt to cross bridges or overpasses which
may have been damaged.
What to do DURING an earthquake

If along the shore and you feel an earthquake,


strong enough to make standing difficult.

Run away
from the shore
toward higher
ground
What to do DURING an
If onearthquake
a mountain, or near a steep hillslope,
move away from steep escarpments which
may be affected by landslides
What to do AFTER an earthquake

If inside an old, weak structure, take the


Fastest and safest way out!

Get out calmly in an orderly


manner. Do not rush to the exit.

Use the stairs. Do not use


elevators.

Check yourself and others


for injuries
What to do AFTER an earthquake

Check surroundings

Clean up chemical spills, toxic


flammable materials to avoid any
chain of unwanted events.

Check for fire and if any, have


it controlled.

Check water and electrical


lines for defects. If any damage is
suspected, turn the system off
in the main valve or switch.
What to do AFTER an earthquake

If you must evacuate your residence, leave a


message stating where you are going

Take with you your


earthquake survival kit,
which should contain
all necessary items for
your protection and
comfort.
What to do AFTER an earthquake

Help reduce the number of casualties from the


earthquake:

Dont enter partially damaged


building, strong aftershocks may
cause these to collapse.

Gather information and disaster


prevention instruction from
battery-operated radios.
Obey public safety precautions.
What to do AFTER an earthquake

Unless you need emergency help:

Do not use your telephone to


call relatives and friends. Disaster
prevention authorities may need
the lines for emergency
communications

Do not use your car and drive


around areas of damage. Rescue
and
roadrelief operations need the
for mobility.

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