Critical appraisal and introduction of quantitative research terms

(Methods- population, generalizability, sampling (random vs

convenience), inclusion/exclusion criteria, extraneous variables,
collection methods, instruments, reliability & validity)
GODSHALL, CHAPTER 4, PGS 79-85
Objectives
Understand the following terms: population, target population,
generalizability, inclusion/exclusion criteria, extraneous variables, random
sample, convenience sample, reliability and validity
Review methods used to collect data for research studies
Generalizability
Ultimate goal of quantitative research:
Create knowledge about a specified population of people (large group of persons
with common characteristics)
Research findings that can be viewed as representing settings that are dissimilar
from the one in which study was done
Sampling Theory
Sampling is expected to represent a population of people
Most often impossible to sample ENTIRE population
Key concepts to sampling theory:
Populations
Sampling criteria
Representativeness
Sampling frame
Population- need to know
Population
large group of persons with common characteristics
Target population
group to whom the researchers think their findings are applicable
Accessible
portion of target population researcher has access.
Sample
Persons (subjects) chosen from a target population to participate in a study.
ideally, representative of the target population
Representativeness
accessible and target population are alike in as many ways as possible

IeResearchers obtain sample from accessible and generalize to target

generalization
Sampling Criteria
List of characteristics for eligibility in target population
Inclusion- must possess to be part of target population
Example: speaks English
Exclusion- characteristics that can exclude from target population
Example: does not speak English

Homogenous- (similar) narrowly defined criteria

Heterogeneous- broadly defined criteria
Sampling Frame
Everyone in accessible population to have opportunity for selection in sample
Sampling frame- list of every member in accessible population
Subjects then selected from sampling frame using a sampling method
Sampling Methods
Two types of sampling methods:
Probability- random
Each person in population have opportunity to be selected for sample
Increases representativeness
Nonprobability- nonrandom
Not every person of population has opportunity for selection in sample
Decreases representativeness
Random Sampling
Randomization- ensures each patient/person has an equal chance of
receiving any of treatments under study and creates a comparable
intervention groups (random assignment)
1. Eliminates selection bias (tossing a coin or using computer generated
randomization tables)
2. Balances the groups with known and unknown confounding variables
3. Forms basis for statistical testing
Nice resource: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3136079/
Nonrandom Sampling
Convenience- research participants recruited from a readily available
population
This may or may not represent the desired population
Sample Size
Must be large enough to detect a difference in outcomes between groups
Power analysis- Statistical method to estimate the appropriate sample size
Should be done before completing study
Insufficient sample size weakens statistical calculations used to detect a difference
Minimum acceptable level of power is 80% or 0.8 (Cohen)
Switching Gears
MEASUREMENT
Measurement
Purpose
Produce trustworthy data
Essential to contributing to EBP
Reader needs to judge
Used in statistical analyses
Two types of measurement
Direct
Measurement of concrete items
Weight, height

Indirect
Captures elements of abstract concept
Coping, anxiety
Measurement Error
Difference between true measure & what is actually being measured
Two types of error:
Random error
Without pattern or direction
Systematic error
Has a direction
Something else is being measured
Reliability and Validity
Research reports should address the reliability and validity of measurement
tool (instrument)
Reliability-
consistency of measurement
Validity-
true
accurate capture of underlying concept