A.

Endogenous Processes
Endogenous Processes are large-scale landform
building and transforming processes
they create relief.

1. Igneous Processes

a. Volcanism: Volcanic eruptions Volcanoes

b. Plutonism: Igneous intrusions

2. Tectonic Processes (Also called Diastrophism)

a. Folding: anticlines, synclines, mountains

b. Faulting: rift valleys, graben
c. Lateral Faulting: strike-slip faults
B. Exogenous Processes
Also called Gradational Processes, they comprise
degradation and aggradation they modify relief

a continuum of processes Weathering Mass

Wasting Erosion Transportation Deposition
these processes are carried through by Geomorphic
Agents: gravity, flowing water (rivers), moving ice
(glaciers), waves and tides (oceans and lakes), wind,
plants, organisms, animals and humans

1. Degradation Processes Also called Denudation Processes

a. Weathering , b. Mass Wasting and c. Erosion
and Transportation
2. Aggradation Processes
a. Deposition fluvial, eolian, glacial, coastal
Constructive and Destructive
Processes
Constructive processes build landforms through tectonic and
depositional processes.
Tectonic processes include movements at plate boundaries, earthquakes,
deformation, and volcanic activity and include landforms such as: mountains,
rift valleys, volcanoes, and intrusive igneous landforms
Depositionisition is the accumulation or accretion of weathered and eroded
materials and include features such as: beaches, barrier islands, spits,
deltas, flood plains, dunes, alluvial fans, and glacial moraines.

Destructive processes break down landforms through

weathering, erosion, and mass wasting.
Weathering is the disintegration of rocks by mechanical, chemical, and
biological agents.
Erosion is the removal and transportation of weathered material by water,
wind, ice, or gravity.
Mass wasting is the rapid down-slope movement of materials by gravity.
Landforms formed by destructive processes include river and stream valleys,
waterfalls, glacial valleys, karst landscapes, coastal cliffs, and wave-cut
scarps.

Other Agents and Processes that Affect Landform Development

Climate: temperature, precipitation, water cycle, atmospheric conditions
Time: fast and slow rates of change
People: influences on natural resources and earth surface processes
Tectonic Landforms
Mountains
Folding
Faulting
Fractures
Domes and Basins
Horst and Graben Rift Valleys
 Folding
Folding occurs when rocks are compressed or deformed
and they buckle under the stress.

The crest of the fold, where the

rock layers slope downward form
the anticline.

The valley of the fold where the

layers slope toward the lower
axis form the syncline.

Table of Contents
Folding
Faulting
Faulting occurs when the rocks fail under deformation processes. A fault is a planar discontinuity along which displacement of the rocks
occurs.
There are four basic types of faulting: normal, reverse, strike-slip, and oblique.

1. Normal: rocks above the fault plane, or hanging

wall, move down relative to the rocks below the
Normal fault plane, or footwall.
2. Reverse: rocks above the hanging wall moves up
relative to the footwall
3. Strike-slip: rocks on either side of a nearly Strike-Slip
vertical fault plane move horizontally
4. Oblique-slip: normal or reverse faults have some
strike-slip movement, or when strike-slip faults
Reverse
have normal or reverse movement

Geologists recognize faults by looking for off-set rock layers in outcrops.

Faults may also be recognized by debris, breccia, clay, or rock fragments that break apart or are pulverized during the movement of the
rocks along the fault plane. Fault gouge is a term used to describe the material produced by faulting.
If a fault plane is exposed, there may be grooves, striations (scratches), and slickenslides (symmetrical fractures) that show evidence of
the rocks movement.

Table of Contents
Faulting
Faulting occurs when the rocks fail under deformation processes. A fault is a
planar discontinuity along which displacement of the rocks occurs.
There are four basic types of faulting: normal, reverse, strike-slip, and blique.
Fractures and Joints
Joints occur where a rock breaks but there is no displacement or faulting
associated with the break. Joints are not singular features, but they occur in
sets within a given type or area of a rock.
Fractures are breaks in rocks that are often singular more random features
and are not associated with a set of joints. Fractures often occur in
association with faults or folds.
Crustal movements, deformation, or other tectonic related movements can
cause rocks to joint or fracture.
Joints and fractures form from compression, tension, or shear stress and can
range in size from millimeters to kilometers.

Common forms of jointing are columnar, sheet jointing, and tensional joints.
Columnar jointing occurs when igneous rocks cool and develop shrinkage
joints along pillar-like columns.
Sheeting joints occur when the layers of rock release pressure and
exfoliate along parallel planes.
Brittle fractures and tensional joints are caused by regionally extensive
compressional or elongated pressures along folds in the crustal rocks.

Sometimes, jointing is obvious, but the processes that caused it may be

unknown, or difficult to identify.
Fractures and joints create a variety of pathways for water to flow through,
which weaken the rock and facilitate chemical, biological, and mechanical
weathering processes.
Jointing
Horst and Graben:
Basin and Range
Horst and graben topography is generated by normal faulting associated with
crustal extension.
The central block termed graben is bounded by normal faults and the graben
drops as the crust separates.
The graben forms an elongated valley that is bound by uplifted ridge-like
mountainous structures referred to as horsts.
Some horsts may tilt slightly producing asymmetric, tilted terrane or
mountain ranges.
In the Western United States, horst and graben fault sequences are described
as Basin and Range topography.
Rift Valleys
Rift valleys are fault structures formed by normal faults.
Rising magma below the crust upwells, forcing the lithosphere to fracture,
as it fractures and cracks, one or more faults cause the crustal rocks to
separate forming a rift valley.
Rift valleys can eventually form lakes or seas such as the Red Sea, which
separates Africa from the Arabian Peninsula. Rift valleys can become
inactive and fill in with volcanic material, such as the rift structure in the
United States which extends from Lake Superior to Oklahoma.
Volcanic Landforms:
Extrusive Igneous

Cinder Cones
Shield Volcanoes
Strato (Composite)Volcanoes
Lava Domes
Volcanic Necks
Volcanic Hot-Spots
Cinder Cones
Cinder cones are relatively small cone shaped hills (< 2000 ft
of relief) formed by the accumulation of cinders and ash
during volcanic eruptions. The cinders form from bursting
bubbles of gas in the magma that eject lava into the air. The
summit my be truncated or bowl-shaped where the magma
emerges from a single central vent or volcanic neck.
Shield Volcanoes
Shield volcanoes are broad shaped
mountain landforms built by the
accumulation of fluid basaltic lava.
Their slopes are often very gentle and
may be < 5 degrees, and their
summits, or peaks, are relatively flat.
They received their name because
their gently domed form resembles
the exterior of a warriors shield. Most
shield volcanoes originate from the
ocean floor and have grown to form
islands or seamounts.
Strato Volcanoes
Strato-volcanoes, also referred to as composite cones, are
large, nearly symmetrical mountainous landforms, formed
by a combination of lava flows and intense pyroclastic
eruptions. Eruptions are violent and the ejected material is
primarily a gas-rich, high viscosity (resistance to flow)
magma.
Lava Domes
Lava domes are rounded, steep-sided mounds built by very
viscous magma that is resistant to flow and builds up
forming a dome.
The magma does not move far from the vent before cooling
and it crystallizes in very rough, angular basaltic rocks.
A single lava dome may be formed by multiple lava flows
that accumulate over time.
Volcanic Hot Spots
Volcanic hot-spots occur where a
mass of magma ascends toward
the earths surface as a mantle
plume, releasing basaltic magma
that generates volcanic activity at
a locally specific site.
Hot-spots do not occur along plate
boundaries but instead form as
intraplate volcanic features
characterized by magma
upwelling. Once a hot spot is
The Hawaiian Islands formed
generated it may stay active for over the last 5 million years
millions of years. from a hot spot in the Pacific
Hot spots may produce thermal Ocean. As the Pacific plate
effects in the ground water and moves over the hotspot, it
the crust producing geothermal generates a chain of islands
power often in the form of steam. that emerge as seamounts
above the oceans surface.
In Iceland and Italy geothermal
Hot spot activity is currently
power is used to generate
most active on the big
Volcanic Necks
Volcanic necks are remnant cooled lava pipes that are
exposed after the exterior volcanic mountain is weathered
and eroded.
Volcanic necks are a good example of differential
weathering. The magma cooled in the interior pipes is more
resistant than the ejected deposits that accumulate on the
exterior. As a result, when the volcanic mountain erodes, it
leaves behind the remnant more resistant volcanic neck.
Volcanic Landforms:
Intrusive Igneous
Batholiths
Plutons
Monadnocks
Batholith
Batholiths are massive igneous intrusions that form linear bodies
that extend for hundreds of kilometers across the landscape and can
be several kilometers thick.
Some batholiths may incorporate groups of smaller plutons in
addition to their massive structure.
Batholiths form below the earths surface as intrusions of magma
emplaced during tectonic processes. Following emplacement they
may be uplifted and exposed by weathering and erosion processes.
Plutons
Plutons are intrusive igneous rocks which form below the
Earths surface and are surrounded by sedimentary or
metamorphic rocks.
Plutons are formed as magma forces its way up through other
rocks and solidifies before reaching the surface.
Some plutons are remnant magma chambers that once
fueled volcanic activity.
Monadnocks
Monadnocks are large hills or mountains of bedrock that stand
out in the landscape.
Monadnocks persist in the landscape because they consist of a
more resistant rock material than the surrounding rock types
which have been weathered and eroded away.
most monadnocks consist primarily of metamorphosed igneous
intrusions, which are more resistant to weathering than the
surrounding rocks.
 Fluvial Landforms

Gulleys
River Terraces
Waterfalls
Flood plains
Alluvial Fans
 Flood plains
Aflood plain is a generally flat area of land next to
ariverorstream. It stretches from thebanks of the river to the
outer edges of thevalley. Flood plains are the landform
adjacent to the river channel that is influenced by modern
river processes. Flood plains are constructive, depositional
landforms created by stream flow and sediment deposition.
 River Terraces
River terraces are older remnant flood plain surfaces that are
higher in elevation than the modern flood plain. They may occur
on one or both sides of the valley.
Terraces are formed when the river channel cuts down into the
flood plain and laterally erodes the alluvial valley, carving a new
river channel and flood plain entrenched within the older flood
plain surfaces. Down cutting can occur because of hydrologic or
sedimentary changes in the headwaters or valley gradient
changes caused by a retreating sea-level and lowered or
extended base-level. Terraces can also form from tectonics and
valley uplifting. Terrace 1

Terrace 2

Terrace 3

Terrace 4

River Channel and Modern Flood Plain

Waterfalls
Waterfalls occur where there is resistant bedrock, abrupt
changes in bedrock resistance, or along fractures or faults
in the bedrock.
Less resistant materials are weathered more quickly than
resistant rocks, creating stair-stepped ledges or drop offs
where waterfalls occur. Less resistant rocks may also form
pools between resistant rocks that form waterfalls.
Faults and fractures often provide natural pathways for the
downslope movement of water.
Alluvial Fans
Alluvial fans are fan-shaped fluvial deposits that
accumulate at the base of stream where it flows out from a
steep gradient.
The stream enters the valley carrying a higher capacity
sediment load than it can continue to carry, and as a result
it deposits the sediments as an alluvial fan.
Alluvial fans generally form in arid environments with a high
sediment load and where there is minimal vegetation to
disrupt the fan formation.
Gullys
Gullys are formed by hillslope erosion.
Rainwater runoff draining over the surface of a hillslope
generates erosive overland flows that remove weathered
rocks and soil.
When multiple gullys form they produce a disconnected
network of headwater channels that dissect the hillslope
and increase soil erosion.
Gullys primarily form on disturbed hillslopes where forest
and vegetation have been cleared.
Karst Landforms
Karst is a term used to describe landscapes that are formed
by chemical weathering process controlled by groundwater
activity. Karst landscapes are predominantly composed of
limestone rock that contains > 70 percent calcium carbonate.
Caverns
Sinkholes
Disappearing Streams
Springs
Towers
 Caverns
Limestone caverns and caves are large
sub-surface voids where the rocks has
been dissolved by carbonation.
Caverns and their various features
form below the ground water table
where dissolved minerals drip through
the ceiling of the cave through
fractures and joints in the limestone.
Over time this mineral-rich ground
water dissolves the rocks until
eventually entire caverns are formed.
Calcium carbonate precipitates out of
the saturated carbonate solution and
accumulates as deposits. Stalactites
are deposits that grow from the ceiling
downward and stalagmites are
deposits that grow from the ground up.
If the stalactite and stalagmites join
they form a continuous column.
Sinkholes
Sinkholes are collapsed limestone features that develop in
karst landscapes. Sinkholes form when the limestone
bedrock is chemically weathered by naturally occurring
chemicals in the ground water. The ground water slowly
dissolves the limestone rock below the surface until it
eventually becomes unstable and collapses creating local
depressional features. Sinkholes occur in a range of sizes,
and can be temporarily, seasonally, or permanently filled
with water.
Sinkholes pose a threat to developed areas, because if they
occur beneath houses or other infrastructure they may
collapse with the sinkhole.
Disappearing Streams
Disappearing streams are streams that flow on the surface
and then seemingly disappear below ground. Disappearing
streams disappear into a sinkhole or other karst solution
features such as caves. They may also disappear into
factures or faults in the bedrock near the stream.
Disappearing streams are also referred to as losing streams,
sinks, or sieves.

Disappearing
Stream
Springs
Karst springs are locations where groundwater emerges
from the limestone and flows across the surface forming a
stream or contained pool.
The flow of Karst springs is generally dependant on the
weather and climate. Some are more permanent than
others, while others only flow following rainfall or snowmelt
events. Springs that are connected to aquifers flow year-
round and support rich aquatic biodiversity.
Towers
Karst towers create a unique topography where the
landscape is mottled with a maze of steep, isolated
limestone hills.
The towers are weathered features formed where the
limestone beds are thick and highly jointed, as a result the
remnant towers contain caves and a variety of other
passageways for water to percolate along fractures in the
joints.
Aeolian Landforms
Aeolian landforms are formed by the deposition of windblown
sediments. The sediments are generally sourced from
deserts, glacial deposits, rivers, or coastal shorelines. Aeolian
sediments are often composed of well-rounded, sand-to silt-
sized particles, that are weathered by wind abrasion during
transport. Sediments are deposited when the velocity of the
wind falls and there is not enough energy available to
transport the sediments. Sands will begin to accumulate
wherever they are deposited and often continue to move
along the ground.
Dunes
Loess Formations
yardangs
 Dunes
Dunes are formed as mounds or ridges of aeolian sand deposits and are then sculpted
by near- surface wind processes, such as saltation. Saltation transports sediment up
slope on the windward side and once the sediments reach the crest they fall over and
accumulate as a steeper slope on the leeward side of the dune, referred to as the slip
face. The common types are barchan, transverse, longitudinal, parabolic, and
star dunes. An area covered by many dunes is an erg.

Barchan dunes are solitary, crescent shaped dunes with their tips pointing downwind. They form where
sand source is limited, wind direction is constant, and the ground is void of vegetation. They can reach
heights of 30 meters and spread nearly 300 meters.

Transverse dunes are a series of long ridges that are parallel to one another, and are perpendicular to
the prevailing wind. They form in areas where the prevailing winds are steady, there is an abundant
supply of sand, and vegetation is sparse. They can reach heights of 200 meters and may extend for
100s of kilometers.

slip face
Barchan Dunes Transverse Dunes
Wind direction Wind Wind

Sand
avalanche

Dune movement
Dunes
Longitudinal dunes, also referred to as Seifs are long ridges of sand that form parallel to
the prevailing wind. They form in areas where there is moderate supply of sand, and
they range in size 5-10 meters tall to 100 meters in height and width.

Star dunes are complex dunes with a central mound surrounded by radiating points.
From above they resemble a star shape. They are formed by shifting wind patterns that
create the unique star shape. Star dunes can reach heights of 90 meters and extend
outward for over twice their height.

Parabolic dunes are similar in form to barchan dunes except their tips point into the
wind. They form as blow outs where the sand has carved out the sediments and
deposited it onto the leeward side. Parabolic dunes form inland from coastal shorelines
from sands on the beach.
Longitudinal Dune

d
in
W
 Loess
Loess deposits are regionally extensive
accumulations of windblown silt resulting from
thousands of dust storms.
During the dust storms, silt is entrained,
transported, and deposited as loess. Loess
deposits are generally sourced from either
glacial or desert terranes, and silt may be
transported for 100's of miles before being Loess
deposited.
Loess deposits are generally coarsest and
thickest close to their source, and they
decrease in thickness and grain size with Sandstone
increasing distance from their source.
Loess is not stratified, meaning it lacks
distinctive layers. Instead they are massive
accumulations of silt. Loess deposits range
from 30 to >100 meters thick, and they
provide very fertile soils for agriculture and
farmland.
Yardang
A yardang is an elongate ridge or remnant rock feature
sculpted by abrasive wind erosion.
Yardangs occur in arid environments where prevailing winds
come from a single direction. The winds must be strong,
steady, and carry a coarse-sediment load that weathers the
exposed face of the yardang.
Yardangs are sculpted into a variety of forms, and some
may resemble common objects or human-like forms.
.
Coastal Landforms
Coastal landforms include a diverse array of shoreline and near-
shoreline features, as well as some coastal plain landforms far
removed from the modern ocean by long term sea-level
changes.
Beaches
Barrier Islands
Beach Ridges
Spits
Deltas
Coastal Cliffs
Marine Terraces
Wave-Cut Scarps
Beaches
Beaches are depositional landforms along the coastal area
where sediment is transported and deposited by waves and
currents. Although the sediment along the beach is
continually being mobilized there is an overall net accretion
of deposition.
The width of the beaches vary from one location to another
and from one shoreline to another. In some locations a
shoreline might even lack a beach altogether.
 Barrier Islands
Barrier islands, also referred to as barrier beaches, are long,
narrow, depositional landforms, that form parallel to the
coastline and may or may not connect to the mainland.
They are generally composed of quartz sands, and they form
along coasts where there is a substantial supply of sand
entering the ocean from Coastal Plain rivers.
Beach Ridges
Beach ridges are wave-deposited ridges that form parallel
to the coastline. They are composed of gravel, sands, and
shell fragments, and in some cases they may be capped by
aeolian sands blown from the beach.
Deltas
Deltas form where the mouth of a river meets its ultimate
base level at the ocean or sea. As the rivers velocity
decreases, it looses the capacity to carry its sediment load
and the resulting deposits form a delta. Delta shapes and
forms vary depending on tidal influences, waves, currents,
sediment type and quantity, river discharge, and the
stream gradient near the outlet.
Sea Cliffs
Sea cliffs are erosional landforms formed by the
undercutting action of the sea against the coastline.
The eroded sea cliff becomes notched inland where the
waves erode the coastline and eventually the overhanging
land collapses into the ocean. This process causes the sea
cliff to slowly retreat inland eroding more and more of the
coastline.
Sea Arch
Sea arches form by erosive wave refraction on opposite
sides of a headland.
The abrasion from both sides erodes an arch by opening a
passageway through the headland.
Wave-Cut Scarps and Platforms
Wave cut scarps are erosional cliff-like features formed by
sea waves breaking against a base of a higher-elevation
coastline.
The wave-cut platform is a relatively flat bench-like surface
that is deposited by the eroded coastline.
Rift Zone
Rift zones are fault structures formed by normal faults
along active boundaries.
Rising magma below the crust upwells, forcing the
lithosphere to fracture, as it fractures and cracks, one or
more faults occur causing the rock layers to separate
forming a rift valley.
Rift valleys can eventually form lakes or seas such as the
Red Sea, which separates Africa from the Arabian Peninsula.
Rift Valleys in Africa

Red Sea

Lake
Victoria
 Glacial Landforms
Glaciers are large masses of
moving ice which accounts for 77
percent of all Earths freshwater. Ice sheets and Alpine
Glaciers
Glaciers are very sensitive to the Ice Field and Ice Caps
slightest temperature changes. Tidal Glaciers and
Icebergs
Over Earths geologic history the
Cirques and Cirque
spatial extent and size of glaciers Glaciers
has expanded and shrunk Moraines
numerous times. As a result, Kettles
glacial landforms can be found in Erratics
locations that currently have no
active glaciers.

50
 Glaciers
Glaciers are large masses of flowing ice formed by the accumulation
and compaction of recrystallized melted snow.
Glacial landforms are divided into two broad categories which occur in
distinct geographic regions: ice sheets which occur high latitude polar
environments and alpine glaciers which occur in high altitude
mountain environments.

Ice sheets are high latitude polar glaciers that cover extensive
areas of continental landmasses, for this reason they are also
referred to as continental glaciers. Glacial ice sheet formation
requires long periods of extremely low temperatures, which allows
snow to collect over vast areas covering the underlying terrain. The
accumulation of snow forms dense layers that are thousands of
meters thick. Antarctica and Greenland are both almost completely
covered by glacial ice sheets.
Alpine glaciers are long, linear glaciers that occupy high altitude
mountain valleys, for this reason they are also referred to as valley
glaciers. Alpine glaciers flow down valley, and increase in size as
they accumulate and absorb smaller tributary glaciers from the
mountainous terrain.
 Ice Sheets and Alpine
Glaciers
Antarctic Ice Sheet

1938 2005
Ice Field and Ice Caps
Ice fields are elongate, continuous expanses of glacial
ice which follow the topography of mountains. Isolated
mountain ridges and peaks often protrude out from the
ice field. Ice field may feed alpine glaciers.
Ice caps are circular shaped masses of glacial ice that
cover an area less than 50,000 km2. Ice caps form in
mountain regions and they completely bury the
underlying topography. Ice caps are similar to ice sheets,
only smaller.
Tidal Glaciers and Icebergs
Tidal glaciers are the portion of either alpine or
continental glaciers which spill out into the sea and float
on the surface of the saltwater.
The glacial ice over the water breaks by calving off into
large icebergs.
Icebergs are large floating blocks of ice that calved off
from tidal glaciers.
Cirques and Cirque Glaciers
Cirques are bowl-shaped eroded, depressions near-
mountain top ridges where snow accumulates and
forms the head of an alpine glacier.
Glaciers in this early phase of formation are often
referred to as cirque glaciers. The confluence of
multiple cirque glaciers merges to form a valley
glaciers. Cirque glaciers feed valley glaciers a relatively
steady source of new snow.

Cirque Glaciers
Moraines
Moraines are formed by the
deposition of glacial till as the
glacier melts. Moraines are
defined by where the glacial
till was deposited relative to
the moving, melting glacier.
Kettles
Kettles are small depressions in the landscape, often
filled with water, that form post-glaciation.
Kettles form when large blocks of ice are left by a
retreating glacier . After the ice block melts, only a void
or kettle remains.
Kettles may or may not form lakes. Those that contain
water are often sourced by rainfall or snowmelt.
Erratics
Erratics are large, isolated boulders deposited by retreating,
melting glaciers. They are post-glacial depositional features
that provide evidence of past glaciations.
As glaciers move across the landscape they pick up
sediments by plucking them off the surface. This process
incorporates sediments into the glacial ice and transports
them down-valley. When the glacier melts, these sediments
are deposited. Erratics, are generally the largest rocks left
behind by the retreating glaciers.