203 A & B

Image Processing and QA

IV. FILM PROCESSING
 Glass plates
Dimensional stability - Cellulose nitrate - flammable
Cellulose triacetate - mid-1920s
base Polyester - early 1960s

Dye
 Emulsion Tabular silver halide crystals are flat and typically 0.1 m
thick
Gelatin & Silver Halide Sensitivity center - imperfections

crystals - homogeneous
98% silver bromide, 2%
silver iodide
Atomic number:
Br=35 Ag=47 I=53
Gelatin=7 Base=7
 Image Processing and QA
IV. FILM PROCESSING
 Image Processing and QA
IV. FILM PROCESSING
 Image Processing and QA
IV. FILM PROCESSING
 Image Processing and QA
IV. FILM PROCESSING
 Image Processing and QA
IV. FILM PROCESSING
Image Processing and QA
 Image Processing and QA
IV. FILM PROCESSING
Developer temperature is usually maintained at 92F to 95F.
Developer temperature is thermostatically controlled and developer solution is circulated through
a heat exchanger under the fixer tank.
The recirculation system provides agitation necessary for uniform solution concentration and
keeps fresh solution in contact with the emulsion.
Thorough removal of chemical solutions from the film emulsion is required for good archival film
quality and is provided by the wash section of the automatic processor.
Dryer temperature is usually 120F to 130F, sufficient to shrink and dry the emulsion without
being excessive.
Unexposed silver is removed from the film during the fixing process and most of it is recoverable
through silver recovery methods; silver recovery is desirable for financial and ecological reasons.
There are three types of silver recovery methods: metallic displacement, electrolytic, and
precipitate.
Sensitometry is the measure of film response to exposure and processing and is used to monitor
quality control.
Selection of Technical Factors
 Selection of Technical Factors

FACTORS AFFECTING RECORDED DETAIL AND

DISTORTION
recorded detail refers to the clarity, or resolution
distortion refers to misrepresentation of the actual size
(magnification) or shape (foreshortening or elongation)
visibility of detail refers to how well the recorded detail
can be seen
Recorded detail refers to the sharpness and abruptness of
structural detail borders
 Selection of Technical Factors

FACTORS AFFECTING RECORDED DETAIL AND

DISTORTION
A. DISTANCE
Geometrically recorded detail improves as OID decreases.
Geometrically recorded detail improves as SID increases.
FACTORS AFFECTING RECORDED DETAIL AND DISTORTION

B. Patient Factors
 Selection of Technical Factors

FACTORS AFFECTING RECORDED DETAIL AND

DISTORTION
C. Focal Spot Size
increased focal spot size = increased blur = decreased
detail
D. MOTION
Motion is the greatest adversary of recorded detail.
E. INTENSIFYING SCREENS
The greater the conversion efficiency and speed of
screens,
 Selection of Technical Factors

FACTORS AFFECTING RADIOGRAPHIC/IMAGE

DENSITY
A. MAS
B. SID
As the SID increases, exposure rate and image density
decrease.
C. KVP
D. INTENSIFYING SCREENS
an increase in screen speed will result in an increase in
image density.
 Selection of Technical Factors

FACTORS AFFECTING RADIOGRAPHIC/IMAGE

DENSITY
E. GRIDS
Because grids remove many x-ray photons that would have
contributed to image density, the addition of a grid requires
a significant increase in mAs.
F. FILTRATION
Ordinary x-ray tube filtration of 2.5 mm Al has no effect on
radiographic/image density. Above this, image density is
reduced.
 Selection of Technical Factors

FACTORS AFFECTING RADIOGRAPHIC/IMAGE

DENSITY
G. PATIENT FACTORS
 Selection of Technical Factors

FACTORS AFFECTING
RADIOGRAPHIC/IMAGE
DENSITY
H. GENERATOR TYPE
I. BEAM RESTRICTION
J. ANODE HEEL EFFECT
K. PROCESSING
 Selection of Technical Factors

FACTORS AFFECTING IMAGE CONTRAST/ CONTRAST

RESOLUTION
long scale, short scale
B. KVP
C. SCATTERED RADIATION
The three factors that have a significant effect on the
production of scattered radiation are the following:
Beam restriction
Kilovoltage
Thickness/volume and density of tissues
 Selection of Technical Factors

FACTORS AFFECTING IMAGE CONTRAST/ CONTRAST

RESOLUTION
Compression of certain parts can occasionally be used to
minimize the effect of scatter, but close collimation can
always be used effectively.
Introduction of an OID (air gap) can have a noticeable
effect on image contrast
 Selection of Technical Factors

FACTORS AFFECTING IMAGE CONTRAST/ CONTRAST

RESOLUTION
D. PATIENT FACTORS
As the thickness and density of tissues increase, so does
the production of scattered radiation; tissue thickness can
sometimes be minimized with compression.
As normal tissues undergo pathologic change, their
penetrability also changes frequently in ways characteristic
of the disease process.
 Selection of Technical Factors

FACTORS AFFECTING IMAGE CONTRAST/ CONTRAST

RESOLUTION
E. GRIDS
F. FILTRATION
2.5 mm Al
G. INTENSIFYING SCREENS
Radiographic images produced with intensifying screens
possess higher contrast than those produced by direct
exposure.
 Selection of Technical Factors

FACTORS AFFECTING IMAGE CONTRAST/ CONTRAST

RESOLUTION
when comparing images produced using different speed
intensifying screens, the higher the screen speed, the
higher the contrast
 Selection of Technical Factors

IMAGE RECEPTOR AND GRID OPTIONS

X-ray film may be described as being made of silver
bromide grains suspended in a gelatin emulsion and coated
on a plastic base material.
polyester, Film base is not absolutely clear; it has a
measurable density, referred to as base fog or base density
The total base plus fog should not exceed 0.2 density as
measured by a densitometer
 Selection of Technical Factors

IMAGE RECEPTOR AND GRID OPTIONS

A. FILM CONTRAST AND LATITUDE
Latitude refers to the range of exposure that will provide
densities within the diagnostically useful range; fast film
generally offers less latitude
Inverse
B. EXPOSURE LATITUDE
While film latitude is related to emulsion characteristics,
exposure latitude is related to the technical factors
selected.
 Selection of Technical Factors

IMAGE RECEPTOR AND GRID OPTIONS

A sensitometric curve with a steep slope usually represents
higher contrast emulsion; a sensitometric curve with a
gentle slope usually represents lower contrast emulsion.
Exposure latitude is related to kV level: as kV increases,
exposure latitude increases, and vice versa.
 Selection of Technical Factors
IMAGE RECEPTOR AND GRID OPTIONS
C. ANATOMIC FACTORS
Consideration of patient habitus, tissue density, and pathology
is important in the appropriate selection of radiographic
accessories grid), thereby significantly reducing patient dose.
Slower speed screens (e.g., 100 speed) are generally used for
extremities and other structures where better detail is desired.
Faster screens (e.g., 400 speed) are usually used for general
radiography of larger, thicker, denser structures to reduce
exposure while still maintaining reasonably good image detail
 Selection of Technical Factors
IMAGE RECEPTOR AND
GRID OPTIONS
D. CONVERSION FACTORS:
INTENSIFYING SCREENS
AND GRIDS
Image Processing and
Quality Assurance
 Image Processing and QA

I. FILM STORAGE
CONSIDERATIONS
A. STORAGE CONDITIONS
B. SAFELIGHT
ILLUMINATION
 Image Processing and QA
II. CASSETTES
Cassettes = stored upright according to size and speed
Cassettes = tested periodically for adequate screen film contact
Intensifying screens = cleaned periodically with antistatic screen
cleaner
Inadequate cleaning = results in white pinhole-type film artifacts
Rough, improper handling or storage of cassettes can lead to damage
resulting in poor screenfilm contact
Film must be handled carefully and properly to avoid artifacts such as
static electricity, scratches, fog, or crescent marks
 Image Processing and QA
III. IMAGE IDENTIFICATION
Medicolegal implications = patients name or identification number,
left- or rightside marker, examination date, and name of institution.
When multiple images are taken of a patient the same day, the time of
day should be indicated on each image.
Some image identification systems can be used only in a darkroom.
Other film/CR identification systems use special cassettes
and are used in daylight conditions.
FILM CRITIQUE