HAWASSA UNIVERSITY

PARTMENT OF CIVIL AND URB

ENGINEERING
PATIAL AND INFORMATIO
MANAGEMENT II
PR .BY:
TEWODROS ZEGEYE
pr.by Tedy Zegye
Topographic surveying and
mapping

Prepared by: Tewodros

Zegeye

pr.by: Teddy Zegye

 Definition and purpose:
INTRODUCTION
Topographic surveying is the process
of determining the positions, on the
earth's surface, of the natural and
artificial features of a given locality,
and of determining the configuration
of the terrain. The location of the
features is known as planimeter and
the configuration of the terrain is
known as topography.
pr.by Tedy Zegye
 The topographic map shows by means of suitable
symbols:The spatial configuration of the earth's surface,
which includes such features as hills and valleys;other
natural features such as
streams ,
oceans,
seas,etc and
man-made features such as
buildings,
roads,
canals,
cultivation, etc.
The principal data required for topographic mapping are
elevation and distance. Several ground methods that
require the use of transit, total station theodolite, plane
table and alidade, level, hand level, tape, leveling rod
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Use of Topographic Maps:
The purpose of Topographic surveying is
to gather data necessary for the
construction of the topographic map that
displays both the planimeter and
topographic features.: -
Industrial Plants
Rail ways & high ways
Irrigation & drainage scheme
Hydroelectric power station
a building complex
Bridges, tunnels and dams
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The user of the map should be able to
interpret the map as a model of the ground.
They are necessary aids in the design of any
engineering project that requires
consideration of landforms, elevations or
gradients.
They also furnish necessary data for
economists, geologists, and others interested
in the general development of natural
resources.
Topographic surveying and the preparation of
a topographic map of the terrain is therefore
generally the first step in the planning and
designing of a major civil engineering project.
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General methods applied to gather
the necessary data for the
preparation of a topographic map .
1.Ground method: is done by means of
total station or theodolite (stadia tacheometre),
as well as with levels, tapes. This method is
economic and suitable for relative small areas.
2.Photogrammetric method:
Aerial photographs: are used to show the
necessary ground data. It is an economic method
for larger areas and projects and it overcomes
the sometimes-difficult access problems to the
area to be mapped. The accuracy of
photogrammetry mainly depends upon the scale
of the aerial photographs.
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The aerial photographs are
measured stereoscopically (three-
dimensionally) by means of a special
instrument called stereoplotter. With
the help of such stereoplotters the
contour lines and positions of all
topographic features can be
determined.
3.Data from satellite : It is done by
capturing land information data from
satellite.
pr.by Tedy Zegye
Total stadia tacheometry procedure in
topographic surveying:
1.Reconnaissance survey
The term reconnaissance means the first inspection
of the target area in terms of existing control points,
possible sites for new observation stations, as well as
the permanent marking of those stations, detection
of possible obstacles and possible solutions to
overcome them etc. With other words, after the first
inspection, one has got some idea (mental map)
about the terrain and the features of the ground.
Gathering information about the existing ground
reference points, benchmarks and their coordinates
and elevations respectively. Establishing additional
horizontal and vertical control points if the existing
control network is not pr.by
dense enough.
Tedy Zegye
2. Establishing control
stations
The establishing of horizontal and
vertical control points is the most
essential part and is the first step in the
field work process of topographic
surveying, since the three-dimensional
coordinates (X, Y, Z) of each point to be
surveyed can only be determined with
respect to well established reference
points.
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Types of controls : Horizontal and Vertical
HORIZONTAL CONTROL
Is provided by two or more points on the ground and
precisely fixed in position by distance and direction.
Is the basis for map scale and locating topographic
features.
For small areas, horizontal control for topographic
work is usually established by a traverse, but
sometimes a single straight line may be used.
VERTICAL CONTROL
Is provided by bench marks in or near the tract to be
surveyed.
Vertical controls are usually established by lines of
levels starting and closing on bench marks.
A surface of a body of water is a continuous bench
mark and may sometimes be used as a vertical control.
pr.by Tedy Zegye
3. Preparation of base map
In Preparation of base map :
Arrange the paper shape in portrait or
landscape
Determine map area and marginal area
Drawing cardinal direction
Determine scale
Grids drawing and labelling

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Scale of the map: The scale of a map should be
selected according to the purpose of the map. For the
first planning stage of a civil engineering project (e.g.
a big bridge) a small-scale map might be adequate,
but for detailed planning (e.g. for the wing wall of the
bridge), large-scale maps would be required. The scale
is usually selected before commencing the fieldwork.
The applied field method should be selected
according to the scale to which the map would be
drawn. An experienced draftsman usually has a
plotting accuracy of about 0.2-0.3 mm, using a
plotting needle and a magnifying glass. If the map will
be prepared by means of CAD (Computer Aided
Design) and subsequently plotted on a drum plotter or
on a flatbed plotter a plotting accuracy of 0.1 mm can
be achieved. However, a dimensionally stable drawing
medium (e.g. polyesterpr.by
film or foil) must be used.
Tedy Zegye
If the scale is (say) 1:500, distances in
the field should be measured to the
nearest 0.10-.15m, according to the
above-mentioned manual plotting
accuracy of 0.2-0.3 mm. A scale of
1:2000 therefore requires a distance
accuracy in the field of 0.4-0.6 m (just
calculate: 0.2 mm x 2000 = 0.4 m). Thus
the field methods for large scale maps
need to be more precise.

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An example: The westernmost station has an easting of
5800 m and the easternmost station has an easting of
6200 m. The coordinate difference is therefore 6200 m-
5800 m=400 m. If a scale of 1:500 is used, a paper length
of at least 0.8 m (400m *1/500) is needed to
accommodate the drawing in the east-west direction. In
the same manner the needed north-south extension of the
paper is examined. However, one should never select a
too close-fitting paper size, but always select a paper size
that is a bit bigger than the minimum paper size in order
to have more space for the plotting of the surrounding
topographic features and for marginal information.In the
preparation of a topographic map, the first plotting task is
to define accurately the position of the horizontal control
points on the plot. This is best accomplished by preparing
a rectangular grid on the base of the map and plotting
each traverse point by means of the computed
coordinates. The procedure to prepare the rectangular grid
is as follows (see also figure 6):
pr.by Tedy Zegye
1.The 4 corners a, b, c and d of the drawing medium ( most
commonly stiff paper) are connected diagonally by means of a T-
square and a hard pencil. The size of the paper should be
considered before the plotting and depends upon the scale of the
drawing, as well as upon the extension of the area to be mapped.
2.From the resulting intersection point S, 4 equal distances are set
out along the 4 diagonals by means of the T-square and the pencil.
The result are the 4 points A; B; C and D on the diagonals.
3.The 4 points A, B, C and D form a rectangle and are to be
connected.
4.Based on this rectangle the grid is developed by setting out the
grid width along the sides of the rectangle. The grid width for the
scale 1:500 is usually 10 cm on the map. The resulting points are
marked either with a needle or with a small pencil line and are
subsequently connected. Later each grid line is labeled with its
corresponding coordinate value.
5.Checking the grid. All grid points have to lay on one line, both, in
the horizontal and vertical direction, as well as diagonally.
In addition, the diagonal distances between two grid points must be
equal to *grid width. The deviation from this value should not
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exceed 0.2 mm.
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A well fitting grid is a prerequisite for an accurate
plotting!
The plotting of the traverse points is carried out as
illustrated in figure 7:

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 Point P has got the (reduced) coordinates X=761,71
and Y=853,94. It has to be plotted in the rectangular
grid in scale 1:1000. The nearest grid lines to point P
are therefore in the western and eastern direction are
the 700, 800 and in the northern and southern direction
are the 800, 900.
By means of a scale the distances AE and DF =53,94
are set out. Then, in the same manner, the distances
AH and BG are set out. Where the lines EF and GH
intersect the traverse point to be plotted is located. The
point P is marked either with a needle or with a small
circle drawn with a sharp pencil. The point is then
labelled with its number. In the same manner all other
traverse points are plotted.
To detect a possible mistake while plotting the traverse
points, the side lengths and the angles of the traverse
are checked with a protractor and engineers scale after
plotting them on the map.
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4. Stadia tacheometry
DEFINITION OF STADIA
A rapid and efficient method of measuring
distances.
Not accurate for high order surveys, but is
accurate enough for trigonometric
levelling, locating topographic details, and
some traverses.
Stadia readings can be taken with
theodolites, transits, and levels.
THEORY
Stadia works because of the trigonometric
principle of similar triangles.
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PRACTICAL APPLICATION
Stadia lines are etched on the telescope
reticle at a given distance apart.

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The stadia lines on the telescope reticle
correspond to the focal distance.
This ratio will always be supplied by the
manufacturer of the equipment.
For most levels, transits, and theodolites
the stadia lines correspond to one
hundredth (1/100) of the focal distance.

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The horizontal distance between a and
b:
L = 100 x l
The height difference between a and b:
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Preparation of a field book where all measured
features, such as roads, buildings, trees, ditches,
fences, manholes, spot heights etc. are entered. In
the case of stadia tacheometry all relevant readings,
such as horizontal angles, vertical angles, the three
stadia readings, and the instrument height are
booked in a special form. The distances and
elevations are calculated in the office and
subsequently the three-dimensional coordinates (X,
Y, Z) of each surveyed point can be determined if
necessary.
The heights of prominent points of some elevated
features such as mountain summits or hill tops and
the bottom of depressions are called spot heights.
In addition, the characteristic valley lines and ridge
lines, as well as the lines of steepest slopes have to
be surveyed. pr.by Tedy Zegye
The determination of the location of a
point by measuring the horizontal angle
and the distance from instrument
station to that point is also called
radial positioning.

The principle is very easy and is

illustrated in figu
The illustration below (figure 4) shows
an application of the radial positioning
method:
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 The benchmarks BM 101 and BM 102 are
surveying stations with known three-
dimensional coordinates (Easting,
Northing and Elevation). The instrument is
set up over (say) BM 101 and a
reference direction is measured to
another visible benchmark BM 102.
The reference target is occupied with a
ranging pole standing in a vertical position
exactly over the point. To save manpower
the ranging pole can be supported by a
ranging pole tripod. For setting up the
ranging pole vertically a rod level or a
plumb bob can be used.
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 In case of stadia tachometry the following data
are measured and booked:
1.point number of point to be surveyed
2.instrument height (can be determined with a
tape )
3.horizontal angle
4.vertical angle ( most commonly the zenith angle)
5.upper, middle and lower staff reading
Before leaving now the station BM 101 it is very
important to take a check reading on BM 102.
This assures that during the survey, done on BM
101, the instrument has not been disturbed. The
check reading is also booked and is immediately
compared with the initial measured reference
direction. pr.by Tedy Zegye
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As illustrated in figure 5, the building cannot
fully be seen from any traverse point. Therefore
a new station from where the building corners
(say) 388 and 389 can be taken has to be
established. For a save determination of the new
station the angle (direction) and distance to the
new station should be measured independently
from two traverse points in order to avoid a
possible faulty determination and to increase
the accuracy. The arithmetic mean of the two
determinations is then calculated and used for
the further survey. The new station is also
marked with a stake, a nail or an iron pipe. A
concrete monument is not for the moment
necessary because of the temporary character
of the station. pr.by Tedy Zegye
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5. Plotting of the topographic features:
Plotting: refers to the transfer of survey data to the map. Before
starting plotting the required size of the map sheet can easily be
determined by examining the extreme station coordinates.
The plotting of all topographic features, including spot heights, can be
done most easily with the use of a protractor and an engineer
scale. The centre of the protractor is held with a hand exactly over
the observation station.
Then, either the zero degree mark or the known azimuth is lined up
with the respective traverse side in order to orient the protractor
properly. The desired angle or azimuth of the points is then taken
from the field notes and noted along the edge of the protractor, and
fine points are marked at these positions (to avoid mixing up of
points, the point numbers are written next to the points). With a
scale, the distances, also taken from the field notes, are then set out
from the protractor centre (traverse station) and going through the
respective previously marked points. The end points are marked with
a sharp pencil (just a point with a small circle around), and labeled
with their point numbers and elevations.
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 When all points of one station have been plotted,
the protractor is moved to the next position, and
the process continues. The points are then
connected as illustrated in the field book.

Plotting and drawing for surveying

purposes has nothing to do with
architectural drawing, and therefore an
artistic portrayal of the topography should
be avoided.

However, a map title with the map scale, a north

arrow and a legend (explanation of the used
symbols) are indispensable items of each
topographic map. pr.by Tedy Zegye
6. Relief representation
Relief on maps
How to show the ups and down (relief) on a
plane sheet of paper is one of the many
problems that have been facing the
mapmakers throughout the history of map
making. Still the maker cannot ignore the
problem because the relief is one of the
most important properties of the earths
surface, with vital influence upon man and
his activities. It is therefore, very
important that the map should inform us
as accurately as possible about the relief of
an area. pr.by Tedy Zegye
Ways of showing relief
1.Physiographic diagrams- (three
dimensional pictures as seen by the
bserver standing on the ground)
It is a mixture of vertical and side view.
Many details of the hill will be hidden
from the view behind the backs.
No accurate information about the actual
height of different point.
Lack of accuracy
2.Hill shading today used together with
contours.
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3.By hachures: These are short lines
drawn in the direction of the ground
slope. An examples for hachures,
applied in the case of a road cutting
and embankment is illustrated in
figure 1

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altitudes for individual points along
roads, mountaintops etc. There is no
artificial physical evidence in the field
of the presence of such a spot height.
They are marked on the map, usually
with a dot followed a number giving
the accurate altitudes in meters (see
figure 2):

pr.by Tedy Zegye

method of representing relief today.
A contour line is a line that connects
points of equal level on the surface of
the earth. The shoreline of a body of
still water (e.g. a lake) is an excellent
illustration of a contour line. They are
drawn on the two-dimensional paper
to give the impression of a third
dimension.

pr.by Tedy Zegye


The properties of contours (isohypses)
imaginary lines
fixed height interval
known height

Contour interval:
The constant vertical distance (height difference)
between two consecutive contour lines is called the
contour interval.
The contour interval for the example, illustrated in
figure 8 is 1 meter.
The proper choice of the contour interval depends on
the slopes of the terrain to be represented, the scale of
the map and the purpose of the survey. If, for example,
the terrain is very hilly and the contour interval is too
small in relation to the scale, the contour lines become
to crowded. pr.by Tedy Zegye
 Table 1 gives an overview about which
contour interval should be selected for the
different map scales and terrain types:
Scale of the Type of terrain Contour interval
map
large flat 0,2-0,5 m
1:1000 or rolling 0,5-1,0 m
larger hilly 1,5-2,0 m
intermediate flat 0,5-1,5 m
1:1000- rolling 1,0-2,0 m
1:10000 hilly 2,0-3,0 m
small flat 1,0-3,0 m
1:10000 or rolling 2,0-5,0 m
smaller hilly 5,0-10,0 m
mountainouspr.by Tedy Zegye 10, 25 or 50 m
 A rolling terrain has got gently raising and
falling slopes.
Table 2 shows common contour intervals
for different purposes:
Purpose of Map scale Contour interval
survey
building sites 1:1000 or larger 0,2-0,5 m
town planning 1:5000-1:10000 0,5-2,0 m
and reservoir
planning
survey of 1:5000-1:20000 2,0-3,0 m
extensive
area,
earthwork,
etc. pr.by Tedy Zegye
Characteristics of contour
lines:
The contours have the following
characteristics:
1.The contour lines are closed lines.
However, they may close either on the
map itself or outside the map,
depending upon the topography.
2.As the perpendicular distance between
two contour lines is the shortest
distance, contours are always
perpendicular to the direction of the
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 U-formed contour lines

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In case of a valley lines or streams, the
contours run roughly parallel to the
valley line or stream and form 's
pointing uphill where they cross the
valley line or stream.
Higher ground
figure 5 V-formed contour lines

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4.If the spacing between the contour lines
is small the slope is steep, but for gentle
slopes the spacing is large (see also
figure 6).
steep
slope

gentle slope

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5.Contour lines never cross one
another or branch into two contour
lines of the same elevation because a
point on the ground cannot have two
elevations (see also figure 11); they
may overlap and appear to meet only
at vertical walls or cliffs.

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6.Depression contours form closed loop
contours around the lowest point. The
elevations of the contours decrease from
outside to inside.
7.Summit contours form closed loop
contours around the highest point. The
elevations of the contours increase from
outside to inside.
8.Contours do not have sharp turnings.
9.Contours areBuilding
not shown going through
buildings.

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10.Contours crossing a man made
horizontal surface (roads, railway
track) will be straight parallel lines
as they cross the facility.

Road

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Interpolation of contours:
Interpolation refers to the process of determining
intermediate values between two observed data
points. The assumption is made that the ground slope
between two adjacent points is constant (in a straight
line). The interpolation is therefore linear.
Interpolation is necessary because the series of points
observed in the field do not necessarily lie exactly on
the contour lines shown on the map; it is not practical
to locate and measure every point on a round or
whole-number contour.
Two methods are mainly applied for linear interpolation,
namely the mathematical interpolation and the
graphical interpolation.
No matter which method is applied, the linear
interpolation is always done along the direction of
the steepest slope! pr.by Tedy Zegye
Mathematical method: Also
sometimes referred to as calculation
method. The following example shows
the principle:

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Figure 12 illustrates a vertical section through
the ground. Point A and B are observed ground
points with its elevations 125,40 m and 127,70
m respectively. The horizontal distance
between the two points is 24,0 m. Wanted is
the position of the round-number contour
lines 126,0 m and 127,0 m along the line AB:
X1: (126,0-125,4) = 24,0:2,30 X2: (127,0-
125,4) = 24,0:2,30
X1 = 6,26 m X2 = 16,70 m
Therefore, the contour line 126,0 m passes at a
distance of 6,26 m from Point A towards point
B, or 17.74m from point B and the contour line
127,0 m passes at a distance of 16,70 m from
the same point A orpr.by
7.3m from B.
Tedy Zegye
 In the topographic map the two distances
(X1 and X2) are set out with a scale along
the straight line AB, marked with a point
and labeled with its elevations.
The same calculation, carried out in the
reverse direction (from point B to point A)
serves as a check.
The mathematical interpolation is a very
accurate method and shall be applied in
cases where a high accuracy is
demanded. The beginning student may
find it time consuming and tedious, but
with some practice the speed increases.
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 Graphical method: with this interpolation
method the work is done very quickly and
also quite accurate, some practice
provided. A sheet of tracing paper is
needed on which parallel lines are drawn
to represent the desired contour interval.
The distance between two parallel lines
on the tracing paper must be chosen that
way, that the distance, perpendicular to
the parallel lines on the tracing paper, for
the elevation difference between point A
and B is shorter than the distance AB
itself. Figure 13 illustrates the method:
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 The tracing paper is used as follows: Suppose
points A and B are two points with the elevations
125.40 m and 127.70 m respectively, and it is
desired to interpolate the 126m and 127m
contour lines between the two points. The
tracing paper is shifted in such a way, that point
A takes up a value of 125.40 m between the
lines 125.0 and 125.5 on the tracing paper (this
is done by estimation). The point A is then fixed
by means of a needle or pin to the tracing paper.
Now, the tracing paper is rotated around point A
until point B takes up a value of 127.70 m
between the lines 127.5 and 128.0 on the
tracing paper (this is done again by estimation).
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 In this position, the contour lines
126.0 and 127.0 are found at the
intersection of the 126.0 and 127.0
lines on the tracing paper with the
plotted line AB. These points are
fixed by pricking with a needle
trough the tracing paper into the
drawing and the indexes to the
contour is also transformed to the
base of the map.
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Sketching of contour lines:
After locating the points of various contour
lines as described previously, the contours
can be sketched. To see clearly the course
of each contour, the points of same
elevation are joined with straight lines.
Then, the points of same elevation are
connected with a smooth curve. This is best
accomplished by using french curves. It is
positioned on the paper to pass through as
many points as possible and a portion of
the curve is drawn. The french curve is then
repositioned for drawing another portion of
the contour. pr.by Tedy Zegye
pr.by Tedy Zegye
Labelling of contour lines:
Intermediate contour lines are drawn with continuous
lines. The intermediate contour lines depend upon the
character of the terrain. In hilly or mountainous areas,
the contours, divisible by 10, 20, 25, 50 or 100 m are
considered as main contour lines. However, in flat
terrain a main contour line can be divisible by 1, 2 or 5
m. An index contour line is a main contour line that
helps the map user to quickly interpret the height
situation portrayed on the map. It is drawn with a
continuous line of thicker width. Most commonly
every fifth contour line is an index contour. In the
example, illustrated in figure 15, those contours whose
elevations are multiples of 5 m are shown with a
heavier line (120, 125, 130 etc.) and are therefore index
contours. When the contour interval is 10 m, the index
contours have elevations that are multiples of 50 m.
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1.All other contour lines are drawn with a
dashed line of the same width as the
intermediate contour lines. They are
called supplementary contour lines. In flat
terrain the 0.5 or 0.25 m contour lines are
drawn in that manner.
2.A small gap is left for writing the elevation.
3.The elevation of a contour should be so
written that the foot of the text shows
towards the lowest point.
4.The amount and the location of elevation
labels should be so selected, that the map
will have a neat appearance.
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6.Map compilation
Construction of the map frame and
legend is done at the stage of Map
compilation. Map Editing and Map
designing also applied at this stage.
Features are depicted on the map using
various combinations of points, lines and
standard symbols

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 a) Map frame Construction
b) Legend Construction
Topographic mapping is effectively done bY Standard
symbols of colour coded and these Standard symbols on
the map are interpreted in legend.
For instance The result looks very much like a finished
map. usually water features are blue, vegetations are
green and for relief brown.
c) Map designing
Most maps are typically depicted many different types of
detail effectively by the following elements.
Clarity-ability of map readable to the user.
Contrast-use of different line weight.
Order-logically designing order of elements of map.
Balance- weight of elements: size,color,font, position.
Harmony-interrelation between elements of map.

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d)Map editing
After the map manuscript is compiled,
several steps remain before a map is
completed. Working over a light table, the
scriber then uses engraving instruments
to the map's lines and symbols. This is
done by removing the soft coating from
the hard plastic guide sheet. All features
to be plotted in the same color on the
mapsuch as blue for water features
are onto separate sheets. A map is edited
several times before final scribed sheets
are completed. pr.by Tedy Zegye
THE END

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