BIOLOGY

Structures and
Functions in
living
organisms
LIVING ORGANISMS
Living organisms need to eat food to
gain nutrients
MRS C NERG
Cells that perform the same function
make up a tissue
 FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES
Nucleus controls the cells activities and contains
genetic material
Cell Membrane controls what enters and leaves the
cell
Cytoplasm It contains many small organelles and is
where chemical processes happen
Mitochondria where respiration takes place
Cell wall provides support for the cell
Vacuole contains cell sap, holds the cell in the right
ANIMALS
Animals have nervous co-ordination so
can sense a food source
Multicellular
Store carbs as glycogen

IN O2
OUT CO2
PLANTS
Plants store carbs as sucrose or starch
Multicellular
The plant cell walls are made out of
cellulose
IN CO2
OUT O2
FUNGI
Mucor (Mycelium) is a thread like structure
called hyphae which contains a lot of nuclei.
Fungi
Yeast is single celled
Has a cell wall made out of chitin.
Fungi secrete enzymes onto wheat and then
absorb the nutrition Saprotrophic nutrition
Do not carry out photosynthesis
BACTERIA
A pathogen is a carrier of a disease
Bacteria do not photosynthesise so they feed off
other organisms
Bacteria has a circular chromosome of DNA no
nucleus
Single cells
Chromosome, slime capsule, cell wall, cytoplasm,
plasma membrane, flagella and plasmid
PROTOCTISTS

Plasmodium is a Protoctist that

causes malaria
Amoeba has a similar cell
structure to animals
Chlorella has chloroplast
VIRUSES
Tobacco mosaic virus discolours the leaves
preventing photosynthesis
Influenza flu HIV AIDS
Viruses can only reproduce in living cells
Viruses are smaller than bacteria cells
Protein coat protects genetic info
Viruses can contain DNA or RNA
DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the movement of a gas or a
substance in solution from a region of
high concentration to a region of low
concentration.
Bigger particles dont diffuse
Higher Temperature, Larger Surface
area
Steep concentration gradient
DIFFUSION EXPERIMENT
Surface area - Pink Gelatine cube in dilute
acid, record time to go clear, change the
surface area, smaller the cube the faster the
diffusion
Temperature - Potassium permanganate in
heated (change) water, time for colour to be
even, higher the temperature the faster the
diffusion
Concentration Pink Agar in (different
 O2

CO2
The gases
move in
and out of
this cell by
diffusion
OSMOSIS
Osmosis is the movement of water
molecules from a region of high water
potential to a region of low water potential
through a partially permeable membrane
Osmosis may stop as the concentration
on both sides may be equal
Pure water has the highest water
potential 0
MODELLING OSMOSIS
Visking tubing acts as a partially permeable
membrane, not permeable to bigger molecules such as
starch and proteins
Sugar solution in visking tubing with a thin glass tube
in a beaker of water. Level of start and after 3 hours the
level increases the sugar has a lower water potential
Osmosis in a potato chip weigh chip before and after
salt solution (different concentration), It loses weight as
concentration increases
PLANT & ANIMAL CELLS AND
OSMOSIS
Plants
In distilled water plants have a strong rigid cell wall
preventing it from bursting
In Salt solution cronated, the cell membrane bulls away
from the cell wall
Animals
In distilled water the cell membrane is weak so it will
burst as the pressure increases
In Salt solution - shrinks as the water moves out of the cell
CELL MEMBRANE AND CELL
WALL EXPERIMENT
Onion on microscope slide with water, absorb
the water and put salt solution on the slide, cell
membrane will pull away from the cell wall
This caused by osmosis
Plants in a salt solution become plasmotysed,
the cell loses water by osmosis
It is so important that plants are turgid so it can
stand up and catch sunlight
OSMOSIS GRAPH
When the salt concentration is low the potato
increases in mass
When it reaches a certain point the sat
concentration is equal to the water potential
of the potato tissue
When salt concentration is highest the potato
decreases mass
PERCENTAGE CHANGE
We use Percentage change as it will make the
experiment more accurate.
The object may not have equivalent surface area so
it wont be fair.

Change/initial times by 100

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

The movement of molecules from a region of

low concentration to a region of high
concentration using energy from respiration
Human
Nutrition
COMPONENTS OF A DIET
Vit A antioxidant - carrots
Vit C growth and repair of tissue oranges, Kiwi
Vit D absorbs calcium for strong bones - fish
Calcium Builds bones and keeps them healthy - dairy
Iron Production of red blood cells - meat
Water in all cells to regulate the temperature - fruit
Fibre improves digestive system whole grain, beans
Carbohydrates
Starches Polysaccharides, very long molecules,
insoluble, not sweet (potato)
Sugars Monosaccharides, small molecules, soluble,
sweet (fruit)
Used for energy CHO
Protein
Very Big Molecules, insoluble, Made up of amino acids,
nitrates in soil used to make amino acids (meat)
Growth and repair CHONS
Lipids
Large molecules, insoluble, made up of glycerol and fatty
acid (nuts dairy)
FOOD TESTS
Starch and Iodine = blue-black

Glucose and benedict's solution =

yellow-orange
Put test tube in beaker of water over
Bunsen burner
ENERGY IN A FOOD
Weigh crisp and the water temperature before
Put the crisp over the Bunsen burner until on fire and
hold directly under the Bunsen burner
Once the crisp is no more measure the temperature
of the water
Energy of 1g of crisp = change in
temp*4.2*volume of water used / mass of crisp
HOW BIG FIRMS DO IT
Heating coil and oxygen supply to burn the food
The food must be dry otherwise energy will be lost
due to evaporation
Insulation is needed so no heat is lost
A stirrer is needed to hot water can get to the
thermometer
ENZYMES
Speed of reaction when too low is slow, meaning the
bacteria are less likely to reproduce. Rate of reaction
increased as more collisions but too far and the
active site is denatured
Optimum pH varies
Biological catalyst a natural substance that
increases the speed of the reaction without using
itself in a living organism.
Rate = 1/ time
AMYLASE ON STARCH
Add Amylase enzyme to a starch solution. Put test tube in
water bath
Use pipette to take sample and add the sample to the
iodine solution in the dimple tray
Keep repeating this until the iodine solution no longer goes
blue or black
Make a note of what time it happens
At this point starch is no longer present
Repeat this 3 times using 3 different water bath temps to
compare the rate of activity
TRYPSIN ON CASEIN (MILK
PROTEIN)
When broken down it should go from milky to clear
5 tubes with milk in, 5 with Trypsin in
Put one of each in a different temp water bath
Once the right temp pour enzyme into milk and start
the clock
Stop time when it goes clear
Repeat for the other 4 temperatures
THE EFFECT OF PH
Hydrogen Peroxide + Potato (catalyst) = Water and
oxygen (Froth)
Put the chopped potato into tube with some water
(pH 7) then add the Hydrogen Peroxide
Start the stopwatch
After 2 minutes measure the froth
Use Buffer solution to change pH
Food Product Enzyme Site of Source of Class of
Action enzyme enzyme
Starch maltose Amylase Mouth Salivary Carbohydras
glands e
Starch maltose Amylase Small pancreas
intestine
Maltose glucose Maltase Small pancreas
intestine
Protein Peptides Pepsin Stomach Stomach Proteases

Protein Peptides Trypsin Small Pancreas

intestine
Peptides Amino Peptidas Small Wall of
acids e intestine intestine
Lipids Fatty Lipase Small Pancreas Lipases
acids intestine
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Absorption taking up the end products (small
intestine)
Digestion the breakdown of food to end products
Assimilation The end products of digestion used to
build up substances needed by cells
Translocation distributing around the body (blood)
Ingestion The physical intake of food (mouth)
Excretion removal of toxic waste (gall bladder)
Egestion Undigested food eliminated from the body
FUNCTIONS
Oesophagus connects mouth and stomach,
a food bolus is moved down my peristalsis
Small intestine - Bile from the liver
neutralises the stomach acid and emulsifies
fat which is stored in the gall bladder
Large intestine reabsorb water and move
undigested food to anus for egestion
SMALL INTESTINE
It is long increases surface area
It is lined with villi, which are covered in microvilli
large surface area
Villi contain blood capillaries concentration
gradient
Villi are only one cell thick short distance
Plant Nutrition
& Transport
INSIDE A LEAF
Upper epidermis stops water leaving the
leaf
Lower epidermis stoma is were carbon
dioxide gets in to the leaf and where oxygen
and water get out of the leaf
Waxy Cuticle to protect the leaf and to hold
in moisture
Leaves contain starch for storage
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Carbon Dioxide + water = glucose + oxygen
Glucose
Sucrose
Cellulose
Oils
Proteins
Starch
LEAF EXPERIMENTS
Stomata nail varnish on bottom of leaf, peel and see
stomata
Leaf for starch dip leaf in boiling water/soften and kills it,
leaf in test tube of ethanol in beaker of hot water (Bunsen
off) / to get chlorophyll out, wash leaf / to get rid of ethanol
and softens it again, spread leaf out and cover in iodine
solution/ should go blue-black
C02 is needed for photosynthesis- plant, lime water in a
dome
Oxygen from a water plant move lamp closer to tub of
water and put water plant in water with a capillary tube to a
gas syringe
LIMITING FACTORS

Light and CO2 light and then CO2 or temperature

O2 and CO2 CO2 and then light or temperature
Temperature temperature is the limiting factor
MINERALS FOR PLANTS
The amino acids that make up proteins contain
nitrogen. Plants need a source of nitrogen
Chlorophyll molecules contain magnesium and
nitrogen. Without either of these it cant
photosynthesise
These minerals are found in the soil
DEFICIENCY
Nitrate stunted growth
Phosphate (making DNA) poor root growth,
younger leaves turn purple
Potassium (enzymes of respiration and
photosynthesis) yellow with dead spots
Magnesium yellow
TRANSPIRATION
Transpiration is the evaporation of water
vapour from the surface of a plant (mostly
leaves)
Wind increase
Humidity decrease
Temperature increase
Light increase
TRANSPIRATION
EXPERIMENT
Side of leaf coated in Vaseline- Change
of mass due to water loss
Plant in bag and not in bag
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
Water enters the plant by osmosis root hair cells
cytoplasm and the water in the soil
Ions enter by active transport
Diffusion is insufficient as it is too far for ions to
diffuse
Therefore they are carried in the transport system :
xylem and phloem
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS PART
2
Xylem is involved in transpiration
When water reaches the xylem it travels as a
continuous column
At the leaves water evaporates from cells in the
spongy mesophyll and water vapour leaves the leaf
through the stomata if the guard cells open
XYLEM
A long tube through a plant
The cells are dead
It helps support the plant
Cell walls are thick
No contents
Respiration
RESPIRATION

Release of energy
C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H2O
Damp on hand
EXPERIMENTS IN
RESPIRATION
Do living things give out heat germinating beans in
flask
Carbon Dioxide is produced in respiration
bicarbonate indicator in test tube and leaf. One foil,
one with light and one with nothing. Orange = high
CO2 / Purple = low CO2
Conical flasks and lime water, the potassium hydrate
solution absorbs the carbon dioxide
Dye measure the distance the dye moves,
germinating seeds over soda lime in water bath,
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
Glucose = lactic acid + a little energy
Body muscle respires this way, causing cramp an
soreness due to lactic acid
Lactic acid is removed by blood running through
them
Yeast respire anaerobically, this is called
fermentation Glucose = ethanol + carbon dioxide
Glucose and yeast test tube and lime water
CARBON CYCLE
Photosynthesis
Carbon compounds in plants
Carbon compounds in animals fossil fuels
respiration and decay
Respiration and decay combustion
Carbon dioxide in air
HEAD THORAX ABDOMEN
ABDOMEN
Head thorax abdomen abdomen
And heart and lungs above the
diaphragm
Head thorax abdomen abdomen
VENTILATION SYSTEM

Air in : Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon dioxide

Air out: Nitrogen, Carbon dioxide, Oxygen
Trachea
Bronchus
Bronchioles
Alveoli
Pleural membrane, stocks alveoli sticking (getting
stuck)
TO BREATHE
Intercostal muscles contract, ribs up and
out
Diaphragm contracts and flattens
Volume in thorax increases
Pressure in thorax decreases
Air flows in
TO BREATHE OUT
Intercostal muscles relax
Diaphragm relaxes and domes
Volume of thorax decreases
Pressure in the thorax increases
Air flows out
ALVEOLI
Alveoli expand when you breathe in and recoil when
you breathe out
Capillary's line the alveoli
As red blood cells enter it has low oxygen levels and
high levels of CO2
When it leaves it has high levels of O2 and low levels
of CO2
This happens by Diffusion
They are exchanged
EXPERIMENT OF EXERCISE
AND BREATHING
Intensity of exercise, walking to different
songs, breaths per minute (measure over
10 seconds)
 SMOKING
Substance in Problem Details of effects
smoke
Tar Cancer Tar is a carcinogen
Smoke Bronchitis Inflamation of
bronchi, meaning lots
of mucus, mucus
sinks to the alveoli
Smoke Emphysema After infections Alveoli
become less elastic
and can burst
Nicotine Heart Attack / Stroke Raises Blood
Pressure, heart rate.
Increase chances of
Blood and
Organs
BLOOD
Phagocyte: white blood cell that digests bacteria
(engulfs it) / so it can squeeze through gaps
Lymphocyte: make antibodies that attack a
pathogen / normal nucleus
Platelets are involved with blood clotting
White blood cells are stained Metholyn blue so
you can see them
Made in the bone marrow
PLASMA
Blood cells are suspended in it
It carries dissolved carbon dioxide to the lungs to be
excreted
Plasma carries the soluble products of digestion from
the gut to the liver and then the rest of the body
Plasma carries hormones chemical messengers
that travel from a gland to a target organ
It carries antibodies
It helps control body temperature
BLOOD VESSELS
Capillaries tiny connect arteries to veins,
very thin walls, increase rate of diffusion, only
fit one read blood cell
Arteries large blood vessel, flow away from
the heart, thick elastic walls / protect from
bursting
Veins flowing back to the heart, Large lumen
to allow easy blood flow. Valves prevent
backflow
BLOOD CLOTTING
When we cut ourselves we lose blood and risk
infection
When platelets come into contact with air they
release an enzyme into the plasma
These enzymes cause the blood to clot and
form a scab
THE HEART
EXPERIMENT EXERCISE AND
HEART RATE
Walking to different songs
Beats per minute, measure 15 seconds and
times by 4
Ecology
ECOSYSTEMS
Ecosystem all organisms living in an area, self
supporting, interacting with each other
Population organisms of one species in a habitat
Community all the different species in a habitat
Habitat the place where an organism lives
Distribution how spread out the organisms are
in the habitat
ABIOTIC FACTORS
Physical Environment The surroundings of an
organism, abiotic factors, water, soil, air
Humidity how much water vapour there is in the air
Light intensity how bright the light is (light meter)
Ph Litmus paper
Soil depth spike and then measure with a ruler
Temperature of air thermometer
Temperature of soil or water thermometer
QUADRATS
We use them to take a sample of the habitat, much quicker
than counting all of the organisms in the whole space
Only suitable if the organisms stay still
To make it fair use a transect - a line laid across the habitat
which you place quadrats along systematically
To draw a graph to represent the distribution we draw the
kite, number of daisy's y, quadrat number/ distance x
Percentage cover count how many squares of the
quadrat is filled
TROPHIC LEVELS
Producer
Primary consumer
Secondary consumer
Tertiary consumer
Decomposer
ENERGY TRANSFER
Energy always decreases down the food chain
think Sankey diagram
Percentage of energy left = (now / initial) *
100
Energy can be lost through heat, respiration,
loss in waste
Pollution
DANGERS OF POLLUTANTS
Green house gas - It absorbs energy and
prevents it escaping earths atmosphere. Earth
becomes hotter. Greenhouse gases are good
(we would be cold at night) but too much is
dangerous
Acid rain acid rain can kill fish in lakes as it
makes the water too acidic, it can kill trees
(damaging leaves and poisoning the soil)
 POLLUTANTS
Carbon Dioxide see carbon cycle, It is a green house gas.
Carbon Monoxide burning fules, incomplete combustion,
It binds to Hb in red blood cells.
Nitrogen oxides It is oxidised in car due to high temps,
acid rain
Sulphur Dioxide fossil fuels, oxidised in combustion, acid
rain
Methane rice farming, cattle farming, green house gas.
CFCs use of aerosol sprays
DANGERS OF GLOBAL
WARMING
Ice caps melting flooding of country's
Changing rainfall patterns
Less food to be grown
Extreme weather
WATER POLLUTION
Algae need nitrates for nutrients. If
algae have too much nitrate the
amount of algae in rivers increase. So
when the algae decomposes high levels
of organic matter such as carbon
dioxide are released. This causes lack
of oxygen so many fish die.
DEFORESTATION
Tree roots hold soil together, when removed
soil is eroded
Nutrients from the soil are leached by the
rain, leaving the soil infertile
Trees stop rainwater flowing too quickly to
rivers preventing flooding
DEFORESTATION AND
GLOBAL WARMING
When forests are cut down, less carbon
dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by
photosynthesising trees
The trees are often burnt which releases
carbon dioxide
Any trees that aren't burnt are decomposed
by micro- organisms who release carbon
dioxide through respiration
All of this increase the level of carbon dioxide
Biological
resources
YOGHURT MAKING
Lactobacillus is a rod shaped bacteria
Milk to yoghurt
The bacteria feeds on the lactose sugar to produce
lactic acid
The lactic acid causes the proteins in the milk to
coagulate
PROCESS OF YOGHURT
MAKING
It is made in a fermenter
Milk heated to 72 to kill and unwanted bacteria
Milk cooled to 40 so the lactobacillus will not be killed
when we add it
Add lactobacillus
Incubated at 35 for 48 hours bacteria excels at warmer
temps
Cooled at 4 to stop bacteria from growing any further and
preserves yoghurt
THE FERMENTER
BEER
Barley seed are germinated. They make amylase
to digest starch
They are then killed and dried to make malt
Malt is ground up and mixed with water in a mash
tun. Amylase breaks down starch to maltose
Mash is boiled and filtered
Hops are added for taste and yeast is added to
ferment the sugars, making beer
Beer is filtered and ready to drink