Sound Transmission

Article 068Jan. '03When a sound wave impacts upon the surface of a solid body,
some portion of it's energy will be reflected, some absorbed and the rest transmitted
through the body. The relative proportion of each depends on the nature of the
material impacted. This topic concentrates on the transmitted component.

Transmission Loss
If we consider the transmission of sound through a partition, we can actually
measure the sound energy on both the source side (Wsrc) and the receiving side
(Wrec) to determine exactly what fraction of the sound is transmitted through. We
can thus determine the transmission coefficient (t) for that partition as follows:

= Wrec
Wsrc
The term Transmission Loss (TL), or more commonly Sound Reduction Index
(SRI) are used to describe the reduction in sound level resulting from transmission
through a material. This is given by:

SRI= 10 log ( Wsrc )

Wrec
= 10 log ( 1/ )
= -10 log ( )

Composite Partitions
If a partition is composed of more than one element, for example a wall with a door
and a window in it, then the effective transmission coefficient must be found as an
average of the area weighted sum of each component's transmission loss. If the
partition has n separate elements, then the average transmission is given by:
Ave = (An tn)
An
Thus:
SRIAve = -10 log ( Ave)
Frequency Dependence
Unfortunately, the SRI of nearly all materials varies with frequency. The main effect
is the mass law, with the effects of resonance and coincidence also contributing.
Thus, SRI values are normally shown as a curve within a graph, as shown in Figure
4 below. However, it is possible to use a single SRI value when dBA or dBB
sound weighting curves have been applied.

SRI curves for some example materials

The Mass Law
Obviously, the greater the mass of the wall, the greater the sound energy required
to set it in motion. The mass law states that every doubling of the mass of a
partition will result in a 6 dB reduction in the level of sound transmitted through it. It
is given by;

R= 20 log (2 f m / oc) dB = 20 log (f m) - 47 dB

where:
f = the frequency (Hz),
m = the mass per unit area (kg/m), and
oc = the characteristic impedance of air (basically, density times the speed of
sound: taken to be between 410 and 420 rayls for 20C and 1 atm).

The mass law applies strictly to limp, non-rigid partitions. However, most materials
used in buildings possess some rigidity or stiffness. This means that other factors
must really be considered, and that the mass law should only be taken as an
approximate guide to the amount of attenuation obtainable.
Resonance and Coincidence Effects
Sound attenuation in ordinary building materials is the result of an interplay
between mass, stiffness and damping. In addition, the mass law is affected by
resonance at lower frequencies and coincidence at higher frequencies, as shown
in Figure 1 below.

Graph of resonance and coincidence effect

Stiffness Controlled Region
At low frequencies (for most building materials below 100Hz), transmission depends
mainly on the stiffness of the wall, with damping and mass having little effect. The
effectiveness of stiffness in the attenuation of sound transmission decreases by 6dB
for every doubling of frequency (one octave).

Resonant Frequencies
At slightly higher frequencies the resonance of the wall begins to control its
transmission behaviour. Because every panel has a finite boundary and edge fixings,
it will have a series of natural frequencies at which it will vibrate more easily than
others. These are called resonant frequencies and consist of a fundamental
frequency (having the greatest effect), and integer multiples of this fundamental
called harmonics (having less and less effect). The fundamental resonant frequency
of a panel can be calculated as follows:

Fr = 0.45 * vL * b((1/l) + (1/h))

and
vl = sqrt(E / (p * (1 - s)))

where:b = the panel thickness (m), l and h = length and height (m), and vl = the
longitudinal velocity of sound in the partition (m/s). In the calculation of vl: E =
Young's modulus of elasticity, s = it's Poisson ratio, and p = density (kg/m).To
calculate harmonic frequencies, simply replace the number 1 in the first equation with
the required harmonic number.
 Resonance occurs when a stiff panel flexes as a
result of incident sound waves
Mass Controlled Region
At frequencies well above that of the lowest resonant frequency, the wall tends to
behave as an assembly of much smaller masses and is then said to be mass
controlled. It is within this range that the mass law directly applies.
Critical Frequency and Coincidence
High frequencies cause bending or ripple waves that travel longitudinally along a
wall or panel. The wavelength of a bending wave is different from that of the
incident sound wave which created it except at one frequency, the critical
frequency. Unlike compressional waves, bending waves of different frequencies
travel at different speeds. This means that for every frequency above the critical
Mass Controlled Region
At frequencies well above that of the lowest resonant frequency, the wall tends to
behave as an assembly of much smaller masses and is then said to be mass
controlled. It is within this range that the mass law directly applies.
Critical Frequency and Coincidence
High frequencies cause bending or ripple waves that travel longitudinally along a
wall or panel. The wavelength of a bending wave is different from that of the
incident sound wave which created it except at one frequency, the critical
frequency. Unlike compressional waves, bending waves of different frequencies
travel at different speeds. This means that for every frequency above the critical
frequency, there will be an angle of incidence at which the wavelength of the
bending wave is equal to the wavelength of the impacting sound. This condition is
known as coincidence.
 The coincidence effect when 'ripples' in a material
are created by incident sound waves

When coincidence occurs it gives rise to a far more efficient transfer of sound
energy from one side of the panel to the other, hence the big coincidence-dip at the
critical frequency. In many thin materials (such as glass and sheet-metal), the
coincidence frequency begins somewhere between 1000 and 4000 Hz, which
includes important speech frequencies.
The lowest frequency at which coincidence can occur is when the angle of
incidence of the sound is at 90 (grazing incidence) and can be calculated from:
Fc = c / (1.8 * h * vl * sin(a))
where:
c = the speed of sound in air (m/s),
h = the panel thickness (m),
vl = the longitudinal velocity of sound in the partition (m/s), and
a = the angle of incidence.

Above the critical frequency, panel stiffness begins to play the most important role
again.

Sound Transmission Class

To avoid the misleading nature of an average SRI value and to provide a reliable
single-figure rating for comparing partitions, the sound transmission class rating
procedure has been widely adopted. According to this procedure, the STC of a
partition is determined by comparing the 16-frequency SRI curve with a standard
reference contour. This contour consists of 3 segments with different vertical
increments, 125-400Hz (15 dB), 400-1250Hz (5 dB) and 1250-4000Hz (0 dB), as
shown in the Figure below.
Sound Transmission Class (STC) curves.
Image taken from The Sound Tool
The calculation of this value, whilst not necessarily complex, is quite laborious. It is
found by shifting this contour vertically until some of the measured values fall below
the STC curve and the following two conditions are met:
1. The sum of all the deficiencies do not exceed 32 dB.
2. The maximum deficiency at any frequency does not exceed 8 dB.

This shifting is always done in integer steps and, when a matching position is found,
the final STC rating is given by the value of the reference curve at 500 Hz.
The Sound Tool is a software program which calculate this value much faster and
easier than hand calculations.
Altering the Transmission Loss of a Panel
Resonance and coincidence effects cannot be eliminated. If the designer aims to
create the maximum SRI, an attempt should be made to get resonant frequencies
as low as possible (preferably well below the audible range) and the critical
frequency as high as possible (preferably well above the audible range). Whilst it is
not possible to apply a generic solution to all panels, the following general
relationships do hold:

Reducing the stiffness of a panel lowers it's resonant frequency and raises it's
critical frequency, basically increasing the region for which the mass law applies.
Increasing panel mass also lowers resonant frequencies and raises the critical
frequency.
Decreasing panel thickness raises the critical frequency but generally reduces
panel mass.
Increasing the amount of damping applied to the panel will not alter the frequencies
of resonance and coincidence but will act to reduce their effect.
Good insulation is therefore a combination of low stiffness, high mass and high
damping (given cost constraints).

Good insulation is therefore a combination of low stiffness, high mass and high
damping (given cost constraints).
NOTE: The most common method of adding damping is to apply a thick layer of
mastic-like material to one side of the panel. This type of treatment is only effective
on materials that have low mass and an inherent lack of damping. It would be
useless on thick concrete walls, for example, but very effective on metal automobile
panels.

Multi-Layer Partitions
As just discussed, the insulation of a single-leaf panel can be improved in a
number of ways, but this process can only continue up to a certain point given the
exponential increase in mass required. Consider the example of a single brick wall
with an SRI of 22dB. To increase this to an overall 40dB in all regions, the mass
must be increased to 8 times the original (2^3). This is clearly impractical from a
building perspective.

Consider, on the other hand, the fact that the wall already has a 22dB SRI. If we
were to build another brick wall right next to it, we could (in theory) achieve a further
drop of 22dB. A situation approaching this is possible if the two walls were
completely separated from each other with no common links, footings or edge
supports, and an air gap greater than a metre between them.

Unfortunately, this is often just as impractical as vastly increasing the mass of the
wall. In practice, walls do have common supports at the edges. It is also rare to find
a cavity wall with more than few centimetres of air gap.
On the other hand, it is possible to create composite or sandwich panels whose total
SRI does approach that of a double wall, if the following points are considered:
Well sealed cavities can result in an increase in sound insulation well above mass
law (6-8dB), assuming the cavity is at least 100mm deep.
Use of layers of different thickness can greatly assists in mismatching resonant and
critical frequencies across the panel.
The use of absorbent materials within the cavities can help to further reduce
transmission.
Only resilient elastic materials should be used as wall ties and suspension
members to reduce any direct connection between layers.
If required, only widely spaced and staggered studs should be used within
partitions.
Caulking and sealants should be used to eliminate perimeter sound leaks.

NOTE: The very last point is quite important as it alludes to flanking. The highest
achievable SRI value for a partition is about 55-60dB. Above 45-50dB, flanking
paths become more and more important. This explains why multiple-layer (three or
more) partitions do not offer any significant improvement over double-leaf
construction.
The following are some examples of different building sections and their
corresponding transmission loss values. It is worth spending some time looking at
these details as it will give you some idea as to the requirements to meet different
values.
Partitions and Panels
Masonry Wall Sections
Floors and Ceilings

Flanking
There are often several other paths sound can follow apart from the direct path
through the panel. These include air conditioning ducts, through ceiling spaces,
around edge fixings, etc. As the designer, you must always be thinking about
possible flanking paths whenever you are doing acoustically sensitive details. This
applies to air seals as well - it is often better to have a tight-fitting lightweight door
than a loose-fitting heavy one.
Two different partition details illustrating the
effects of flanking
For Those Interested
Some clarifying points [From Norton, M.P., Fundamentals of Noise and Vibrational
Analysis for Engineers. Section 3.9].

1. If Wn is the natural frequency of a panel and W is the frequency of excitation:

(a) when W << Wn, stiffness dominates,
(b) when W == Wn, damping dominates and
(c) when W >> Wn mass dominates.

2. If a panel is mechanically excited, most of the energy is produced by resonant

panel modes irrespective of W.

3. If a panel is acoustically excited by incidence, its vibrational response comprises

both a forced vibrational response at W and a resonant response at all relevant
natural frequencies which are excited by the interaction of the forced bending
waves with the panel boundaries.

Related Links
Transmission Loss Explained
http://www.domesticsoundproofing.co.uk/tloss.htm