Structural Steel Design

100 years of experience

High strength
Toughness- resistance to cracking
Lightweight
Fabrication ease- fab. shop
Speed of construction-on site
Hardness
Corrosion resistance
Weldability

Architect I. M. Pei's glass pyramid, added to the

Muse du Louvre in 1989, both reflects the sky
and is reflected by the water.
Design Objectives
Safety
Support the loads
Consider deflections and vibrations, i.e. John
Hancock Building in Boston
Develop a rational construction and erection
procedure
Cost
Standard members
Connection methodology
Lightest sections, materials cost
Availability
 Steel - The Material Facts
Steel was first produced in 1738 in Sheffield, England, know as
crucible steel was very pure, but difficult and expensive to
produce.
British Inventor Henry Bessemer produced the first economical
steel in 1856.
Today steel is produced in over 50 countries all across the world.
To every ton of Portland Cement produced, 3 tons of wood and
10 tons of steel are produced.
In 2003, China was the first country to produce more than 200
million tons of crude steel in a year (more than 20% of the
worlds steel is produced in China).
China is the worlds largest consumer of steel (cars, general
industry, construction)
 Steel - The Material Facts
The United States and China are the largest importers of steel.
Worlds most recycled material, steel is recycled mostly from junk
cars (3-400,000 cars per year per steel mill; 27 cars / minute in
North America).
Japan is the largest exporter of steel.
More than 60% of the steel produced annually is recycled steel.
Properties of steel are not altered by how many times it is recycled.
Per pound of material, steel is the most efficient of all building
materials.
Steel can do load-carrying tasks with a fraction of the material
needed from other materials such as concrete or wood.
Densest of structural materials and therefore handles longer spans,
and produces lighter structures with the greatest economy.
Found in fasteners (nails), structural components, rebar, sheet-
metal, appliances, cars, ships,
Carbon and its Effects
About 1.7% Carbon
Also Manganese, Silicon, Copper
Low Carbon C% <0.15%
Mild Carbon 0.15%< C% < 0.29%
Medium Carbon 0.3< C% < 0.59%
High Carbon 0.6%< C% < 1.7%
E and FY are both inversely
proportional to Temperature
Steel | Chemical Composition
Wrought Iron Steel Cast Iron
< 0.2 % Carbon 0.2 - 2 % Carbon < 3 - 4 % Carbon
Soft & Malleable + Hard & Brittle
Controlled amounts of:
Manganese, Phosphorous
Silicon, Sulfur, Oxygen
Mild Steel
0.2 - 0.25 % Carbon
Combinations of:
Medium Steel
0.25 - 0.45 % Carbon
Carbon Steel + Chromium, Cobalt, Copper,
Molybdenum, Nickel,
Hard Steel Tungsten, Vanadium
0.45 - 0.85 % Carbon
Alloy Steel
Spring Steel Stainless Steel
0.85 - 1.85 % Carbon
Weathering Steel
 Steel | Chemical Composition
Steel is an alloy of Iron, Carbon (<2%), and Manganese (<1%).
It also contains small amounts of Phosphorous, Silicon, Sulfur and
Oxygen
Carbon Steel these chemical elements are controlled to provide
consistent quality and grade of steel
Carbon content greatly affects the properties of steel
More Carbon increases : strength, hardness, corrosion-resistance
More Carbon decreases : malleability, ductility, and weldability
The amount of Carbon does NOT affect the Modulus of Elasticity
(E) of the Steel
Alloy Steel is Carbon Steel to which one or more chemical
elements have been added to achieve certain physical or chemical
properties
Stainless Steel Adding 15-18% Chromium and 7-8% Nickel
produces corrosion-resistant steel
Weathering Steel (Cor-Ten Steel)
Adding Copper and Phosphorous creates a steel that forms an
oxide coating, rust, that adheres to the base metal and prevents
further corrosion

Cor-Ten Steel Sculpture, By Richard Serra

Museum of Modern Art, Fort Worth, TX
Types of Steel
High strength
Low alloy FY about 50 Ksi.
Alloy Steel
High Yield strength but low ductility
heat treating: (Quenched from 1650F down to 300F, reheated slowly
to 1150F.
Properties
Weight = 490 lbs/cubic feet
Coefficient of thermal expansion a = 0.0000065 me/F
Poissons ratio, u= 0.3
Youngs modulus, E = 29,000,000 psi
Steel | Production
Iron ore constitutes 5% of earths crust, 70% of earths core is iron.
U.S. has roughly 25% of world coal supply.
Steel is heated to molten state to remove oxides. Three Types of
Production Furnaces:
Open Hearth Furnace (OHF)
Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF)
Electric Arc Furnace (EAF)

Whether BOF or EAF all steel is recycled back into steel, so

although BOF has a lower % of recycled steel, it is still
environmentally friendly.
Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) process is environmentally safer.
Refining is the addition of alloys to obtain certain characteristics in the
steel:
Molybdenum- strength.
Manganese- resistance to abrasion and impact.
Vanadium- strength and toughness.
Nickel and chromium- toughness, stiffness and corrosion
resistance.
Casting: Liquid steel is cast into semi-finished products; billet,
blooms
By 1980s computer controls were prevalent in steel mills.
Open Hearth Furnace (OHF):

Discontinued in USA due to OSHA and EPA regulations as it

wasted energy and manpower.

Last Open Hearth Furnace in U.S. was closed down in 1980s.

Extreme heat burned out impurities in iron.

Accepts variable amounts of scraps (20-80%) .
3000F minimum temperature required, 10 hours to accomplish.
Worldwide, 3.6% of steel produced in 2003 was OHF.

The Material Steel | PRODUCTION

 Steel | Structural Properties

Ductile, absorbs energy

Steel buildings are light and therefore require

smaller foundations.
Steel is a lightweight solution that is
strong enough to allow for longer spans.
Charles de Gaulle Airport, Paris . France
Quick erection.
Flexibility, Strength, Durability, Functionality.

Shop Fabrication reduces on-site work down to

the assembly and the erection of frame only.

Shop Fabrication reduces on-site weather delays.

Less time on construction site reduces cost.
Structural Properties:
Overview

Steel is consistent, isotropic and homogenous.

Density 490 LBS./ FT 3 or 0.25 LB. / IN 3
(concrete: 144 LBS./ FT 3 or 0.08 LB./ IN 3,
wood: 35 - 40 LBS. / FT 3 )
Steel is capable of precise tolerances and with proper
detailing will provide an exceptionally tight building
envelope.
Minimum on-site waste.
Strong and stiff for very little weight.
The Material Steel | STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES
 Steel | Terminology

Hot Rolled Cold Formed

The Material Steel | TERMINOLOGY

 Coping
Steel | Terminology

Flange : Bending

Web : Shear

Reduced Beam Section

RBS (Dogbone)

The Material Steel | TERMINOLOGY

 Steel | Terminology
Fabricator

The Material Steel | TERMINOLOGY

 Steel | Terminology
Detailer
Camber

Shear Studs The Material Steel | TERMINOLOGY

 Steel | Terminology
Fillet Weld

Groove Weld

Puddle Weld The Material Steel | TERMINOLOGY

 Steel | Terminology

Horizontal Bridging

Cross Bridging

The Material Steel | TERMINOLOGY

Stress-Strain Behavior
A rod with cross section area A is pulled in tension by a force T. The
rod length is L before the force is applied, and L + dL after the force is
applied. The stress is f = T/A and the strain is = dL/L.
When the tension is small, then the stress is proportional to strain
(Hooke's law). If the tension load is released, then the rod will go back
to its original length. This is elastic behavior.
stress, f, for A36 steel
60 ultimate stress
L
stress = f = T/A

stress, kips per sq. in.

strain = = dL/L 40 yield stress

T T
20
dL

10% 20% 30%

strain,
Idealized Stress Strain Response

stress, f, for A36 steel (magnified)

60
stress, kips per sq. in.

initial slope = E = 29,000 ksi

40

20
elastic

plastic range strain hardening range

1% 2% 3%
strain,
Elastic Response
The proportionality constant is the modulus of elasticity E. For all
three types of structural steel, E = 29,000 ksi (kips per square inch).
When the tension becomes sufficiently large, then the steel begins
to have permanent deformation. This means that when the tension
load is released, the length change is not recovered back to original
length. The rod will be longer than the original length L. The
stress level where the permanent deformation begins is called the
yield stress, Fy. In the two most commonly used structural steel
types, Fy = 36 ksi for A36 steel and F y = 50 ksi for A572 Grade 50
steel.
Note that Fy = 36 ksi and Fu = 58 ksi. The graphs of the engineering
stress-strain curves for A572 Grade 50 steel is similar, with F y = 50
ksi and Fu = 65 ksi.
Yield Strength
At the end of linear range, if the rod is deformed further, the stresses are first
nearly constant, but then begin to increase again. The constant stress range is
called the plastic range. The range at which the stresses increase again is
called the strain-hardening range.
Linear analysis fail beyond this level.
The stresses will increase, but will eventually reach a peak value, which is
called the ultimate stress, Fu. After the stress reaches Fu, further deformation
in the rod will decreases the stress until the rod finally breaks.
post yield ductility contributes to the safety factors.
Use offset method as a convenient way. No physical meaning.
FY Basis for many design guidelines
Before 33 Ksi
Now 24-100 Ksi
Construction Process
 Profiles in Steel
Name Sample Designation Size Range Features / Applications Remarks
Strengths

Wide Flange W 12 x 50 12 : Nominal depth W 4 W 44 Bending Beams 3/8< tf < 2

50 : Weight / Lin. Ft. 9 #/ft 30 #/ft Compression Columns 1/4< tw < 5

Bearing Piles HP 14 x 102 14 : Nominal depth HP 8 HP 14 Compression Piles tw = tf < 1

102 : Weight / Lin.Ft. 36 - 117 #/ft Bearing

American S 15 x 50 15 : Nominal Depth S 3 - S 24 Beams Flanges

Standard 50 : Weight / Lin. Ft. 5.7 - 121 #/ft Bending Columns slope at 2:12
(I-beam) Not as
stable as
W-shapes

M-Shapes M 14 x 18 14 : Nominal depth M 5-M 14 Bending Beams Smaller

18 : Weight / Lin. Ft. 4.4-18 #/ft Columns members
that are
not W,
HP, S
Name Sample Designation Size Range Features / Applications Remarks
Strengths
American C 10 x 30 10: Actual depth C3 - C15
Standard 30: Weight / Lin. Ft. 4.1 - 50 #/ft
Channel Nominal
Depth =
Actual Depth
Miscellaneous MC 13 x 50 13: Actual depth MC 6-18 Tension Bracing No torsional
Channels 50: Weight / Lin. Ft. 6.5 - 58 #/ft Compression Lintels strength
Bending Stairs
Trusses
Name Sample Designation Size Range Features / Applications Remarks
Strengths

Structural Tees: WT 5 x 9.5 5: Nominal depth WT2 - WT18; Compression Bracing Split W
Cut from W MT 5 x 4.5 9.5, 4.5, 12.7: 4.5 - 179.5 #/ft Tension Trusses -shape
Cut from M ST 5 x 12.7 Weight/Linear Ft. Bending Lintels lengthwise
Cut from S MT2.5 MT7;
2.2 - 9.45 #/ft

ST1.5 ST12;
2.85 - 60.5 #/ft

Equal L 4 x 4 x 1/2 4 : Leg size L 1 x 1 x 1/8-

Leg Angle : Leg thickness L 8 x 8 x 1 1/8

Compression Bracing t = 1/8

Tension Trusses
Unequal L 6 x 4 x 1/2 6: Long leg L 2 1/2 x 2 x 3/16 Bending t = 1- 1/8
Lintels
Leg Angle 4: Short leg - L 9 x 4 x 5/8 Connections
: Leg thickness
 Name Sample Designation Size Range Features / Applications Remarks
Strengths
Square 4 x 4 x 1/2 4 each side 2 x 2 x 3/16 Compression Columns Stable
thickness 8 x 8 x 5/8 Tension Trusses Good in
t: 3/16 - 5/8 Braces Torsion

Rectangular 20 x 12 x 5/8 20 side 3 x 2 x 3/16 Compression Columns

12 side 20 x 12 x 5/84 Tension Trusses
5/8 thickness t: 3/16 - 5/8 Braces

Pipes Standard -12 diameter Compression Columns Stable

Extra Strong 6 Extra -12 diameter Tension Trusses Good in
Double Extra 2 - 8 diameter Braces Torsion
Strong .
Strong

The Material Steel | PROFILES IN STEEL

 Steel | Fire Protection
Objective:
To maintain structural integrity for a specified period of
time to allow the evacuation of occupants and secure
access for firefighters.

1. Fire resistance is expressed in units of time it takes the

structural member to reach failure by heating.
2. Steel loses its integrity at 500C (~930F), and most of its
strength at 600C (1100F).

3. Lighter steel sections will require more fire protection than

thicker sections since heavier sections will heat up at a slower
rate.
4. Steel sections that are in contact with concrete take longer to
heat up than ones without contact.

5. The thickness of fire protection material dictates its fire rating

and the protection time it delivers.

6. Light gauge steel products heat up very quickly.

The Material Steel | FIRE PROTECTION

Most fire protection systems can provide up to 4 hours (non-
combustible) including intumescent paints.
Fireprotection systems are determined by appearance durability, cost,
ease of installation, finish quality, surface preparation needed, and speed
of application.
Steel that is to be fire protected should not be painted or galvanized in
order to adhere straight to the base metal.
Minimum fire-resistance ratings for primary and secondary structural
members is provided in Building Codes and is based on Occupancy and
Type of Construction.
The total area and weight of a building determines its Building Type.
Most multi-story steel frames are Type I or Type II - non combustible.
Primary structural members include: columns, beams, girders, trusses
and other structural members directly connected to columns.

Charles de Gaulle Airport

Paris . France
 Material Information Appearance Installation Quality Surface Cost Fire
Preparation (Relative) Rating

SPRAYED Sprayed Fire Resistant Materials (SFRM) | Two Types: Reactive and Non-Reactive

Non-reactive $ Up to
May be used Not typically Easy to cover Care must be Applied to
exposed aesthetically complex taken to unpainted 4 hrs.
Mineral Fiber Overspray acceptable in areas/details achieve even steel 1 hr.
public areas Must mask application per inch
(Dry) & Can be
Cementitious
adjacent increasing
troweled areas thickness
(Wet) adds
Very Messy durability
but also
Interferes with weight
other trades
Reactive $$
Thin coat Brush or Limited fire- Steel Up to
allows steel spray applied. protection preparation to 1 Hr.
profile to Easy to cover duration may be $$$
(standard)
retain detail detail (around necessary
Thin-film and remain pipes, etc.) Can
Intumescent aesthetically achieve
Paint
pleasing Easy to repair
4 Hrs.,
Wet trade but is
attractive
decorative Must have costly
Epoxy Base finishes are proper
Intumescent available atmosphere Thicker
Industrial conditions at = more
time of passes
Application Epoxy Base application = more
has course cost
texture Overspray
must be
considered
An intumescent is a substance which swells as a result of heat exposure, thus increasing in volume, and decreasing in density
Material Information Appearance Installation Quality Surface Cost Fire
Preparation (Relative) Rating

Gypsum Non-reactive Acceptable Dry Uniform Applied to $$ Up to

Board (no wet mess) thickness unfinished steel 4 Hrs.
Clean, boxed assures
appearance Difficult in the quality =
can be left small / detailed of the rating 1 hr.
unfinished in areas. Typical for
unseen areas columns
or finished
Slower than
less usual
some other
where visible for beams
methods
Non-reactive Unsightly Dry. No effect Uniform Applied to $ 1-2
Blanket (needs to be on other thickness unfinished steel Hrs.
Insulation hidden) trades

Less popular Same as Typical Unsurpassed

Applied to $$$ varies
Concrete construction unfinished steel
today with the concrete or Durability with
Encasing introduction concrete methods thick-
of lighter fire block lost space Weatherability ness
protection construction due to
materials massiveness
adds
significant
weight to the
structure
Buckling- Before and After
Failure of members subjected to compressive stresses at
stress levels much below the values of yield stress
Residual Stresses-
Uneven cooling Flanges cool faster than the web, so
when web contracts due to cooling, the flange resists
the contraction and experiences tensile stresses. The
web has to react to those forces and enters
compression.
Cold bending Cold formed steel sections, lightgage
material (thickness of the order of 0.05 gage 16).
Residual stresses develop due to plastic deformation
and subsequent unloading due to the forming process.
 Residual Stresses -Welding
Built-up sections such as plate girders, and welded connections, heating up to
about 6500F. localized temperature changes, relaxation after the cooling, and
development of a stiff connection result in residual stresses.
Maximum residual compressive stresses at flange tips and web midheight
Maximum residual tensile stresses at junction of flanges and web

Crack due to residual stresses at web-flange junction Residual stresses cracks at welds
Effect of Residual Stresses
Stresses accumulate,
residual stresses + applied stresses = failure
Localized failure due to overstressing
Stiffened and unstiffened elements
Stiffened elements have both edges connected and supported.
Unstiffened elements have one edge free
Look at b/t (length of sub-element to thickness)
Effect of localized failure on overall response
Failure of connections
1989 Loma-Prieta Earthquake - Bay Bridge San Francisco
Failure of connections
Steel Bridge Connection in Kobe, Japan 1995 Earthquake
Points to Remember-Physics
Just because you design it in a specific way, it
is not going to behave that way.
Cant fight city hall, especially mother nature.
Distinguish between real science and
empirical knowledge
Question Authority
Murphys law
Points to Remember-Codes
Many codes are empirically based, and
empirical knowledge works only under the
circumstances and specific conditions that it
was developed.
Experience and past history cant substitute
reality.
Extrapolation is dangerous.
Hope is not a Strategy.
Points to Remember-Calculations
Do not trust your calculator, computer, boss, co-
workers. Always look to see if the numbers make
sense.
Units are your best friends, always remember them and
be consistent throughout calculations.
Know why you are using an equation before actually
using it.
Write down and underline your assumptions. Always go
back to check them.
Write down the several steps needed prior to starting
calculations.
Use labels for your calculations.