Physiology

NS I
Motor Control
Prof. Fakhir Al-Ani
fakeralani2000@yahoo.com
 Neurotransmitters In B.G. Nu.
ACh (+):
Cortex Putamen +Caudate

Dopamine (-):
S.Nigra Caudate nucleus + ACh

GABA (-):
- GABA
Caudate & Putamen - GABA - D

Globus pallidus &

Substantia nigra
 Neurotransmitters
Ach = (+):

GABA (-)

Dopamine (-):
From S.N. To
Other Caudate
Transmitter
 Diseases (Parkinsons disease)
Parkinsons disease (paralysis agitans):
Degeneration of S.N. & or globus pallidus.
Dopamine secreting in S.N.
ACh activity in the striatum from cortex.

Characterized by:
Rigidity, - Mask face
Tremor at rest, - Shuffling gat
Akinesia. - Diff. initiation & ending Move.
Treat by replacing dopamine (L-DOPA) and/or by
blocking ACh from cortex.
 Diseases
Chorea (Huntingtons, Sydenham Chorea):
- Degeneration of striatum.
- Unopposed DA release by S.N.
- Results from loss of GABA containing neurons
& so loss of inhibitory input to globus pallidus.

Characterized by:
- chorea = dance :- Irregular involuntary movement.
- Progresses to rigidity & dementia, death.
 Other Diseases of B.G.
Ballism: (Sub-thalamic nu. or its connections).
Violent flailing movements.
Hemi-ballism unilateral.

Athetosis (globus pallidus).

Writhing movements of hand, arm, neck, or face.
Cerebellum
 Cerebellum (Little Brain)
Function:-
Contributes to smooth coordination of motor activity.
By
Huge sensory input

Cerebellum

Processes information (in regard to body position)

Corrective adjustments of planned motor activity
 Cerebellar Function
(Type of movement)
In voluntary movement
Corrects motor irregularities
Compares motor central intentions to peripheral
performance
Controls ballistic movements.
In posture & equilibrium
Cooperation with Spinal C., reticular formation & cortex.
Primarily inhibitory function
 Cerebellar Connections
The cerebellum operates in 3s:
there are 3 routes, 3 main inputs & 3outputs from 3 deep
nuclei.
The 3 routes are:-
The peduncles, or stalks
The rostral.
The middle.
The caudal.
 Cerebellar Inputs

The 3 inputs are:

Mossy fibers from the spinocerebellar pathways
Carrying information from Spinal cord.
Mossy fibers from the pons.
Carrying information from the contralateral cortex
Climbing fibers from the inferior olive
 Cerebellar nuclei
The 3 deep nuclei are:
1. Fastigial nucleus: -
Concerned with balance
Sends information mainly to vestibular & reticular nu.
2. Dentate Nucleus.
3. Interposed Nucleus.
Both concerned with voluntary movement.
Send information to the thalamus & red nucleus
All 3 receive inputs from:-
- Sensory afferent tracts.
- Cerebellar cortex.
 Cerebellar Efferent Pathways
1. To medullay & pontine regions of brain stem.
(posture & equilibrium)
2. To thalamus (VL & VA) Cortex thalamus
(midline) B.G. Red nucleus, reticular
formation
(coordination between agonists &
antagonists)
3. To thalamus (VL & VA) to cortex
(coordination of sequential motor actions)
 Cerebellar Circuits
Inputs to the cerebellar cortex (mossy & climbing fibers)
Excite the deep nuclei cells as they enter.
The output of the CBL cortex (Purkinje cell axons)
Inhibits the deep nuclei cells.
Climbing fibers
Excite Purkinje cell dendrites.
Mossy fibers excite granule cells, whose axons (parallel
fibers)
Excite Purkinje cell dendrites.
Deep nuclei cells & Purkinje cells fire tonically.
Cerebellar Circuits
 Feedback loop
From:-
the cortex
To
the cerebellum
To
the thalamus
(VLc),
To
the cortical area 4
(PMA)
 Cerebellar Diseases
Cerebellar lesions:
Hereditary cerebellar degeneration:-
(abiotrophy):

Cerebellar hypoplasia:-
- Perinatal infection by feline parvovirus
kills granule cells, P-cells.
Decortication (A) Decerebration (B)
Decortication:- Decortication

- Hypermetria
Decerebration
- Spasticity/hyperreflexia
- Hemiparesis
Decerebration:-
Lose cortex, thalamus,
& Leaves sub-thalamus
- Hyperactive reticular formation
Extensor rigidity.
Hyperexcited & motor n.s.
- Unopposed vestibular facilitation.
Flexor hypertonus.
 Cerebellar Lesion
Hypotonia
Ataxia
Nystagmus
Intention tremor
Dysmetrias
 Over-Simplified Summary
Motor cortex:
Initiation of movements
Brain stem centers:
Balance of excitation & inhibition of antigravity m.
integration of vestibular information
Basal ganglia:
Posture, planning & coordination of motor action.
Cerebellum:
Equilibrium, coordination of motor action based on
sensory information & feedback
 Brain Stem Motor Centers
1. Pontine reticular nuclei:
Excite antigravity muscles
(Vertebral column m. & limb extensor m.)
2. Pontine reticulospinal tract (Medullary).
Inhibit antigravity muscles
Pontine & medullary systems balance each other.
3. Vestibular nuclei:- (lateral & medial vestibulospinal T).
Supplement the excitatory function of the pontine system
by integrating vestibular information.
Organization of motor movement
Motor output is of two types:
1. Reflexive, (involuntary),
2. Voluntary.
Some activity include both (Voluntary act & reflex)
such as swallowing, chewing, scratching, &
walking.

These are largely involuntary but subject to

voluntary adjustment & control
 Control of Posture & Movement
Somatic motor activity (Voluntary & Reflex) depends upon:-
The pattern & rate of spinal motor neurons discharge, &
the homologous neurons in cranial n nuclei.
There are many inputs to each spinal motor n. from:-
1. Cerebral cortex.
2. Brain stem. ental inputs.
3. Numerous suprasegments.
4. Same spinal segment.
They end:- 1. Directly on Alpha motor neurons.
2. Via interneurons.
3. Via the efferent system to muscle spindles & back
through the Ia afferent f. to the spinal cord.
 Role of different input to
the spinal cord
These multiple inputs Initiation & regulate:-
1. Voluntary activity.
2. Adjust body posture to be stable for the voluntary act.
3. Coordinate action of various muscles to make movements
smooth & precise.

Voluntary act is planned in the brain, & sent to the m. via the
corticospinal & corticobulbar systems.
Posture is adjusted before & also during movement by
posture-regulating systems.
Movement is smoothed & coordinated by the medial & intermediate
part of the cerebellum (spinocerebellum) & its connections.
 Diagram of initiation & Control of
Posture & Movement

The B.G. & Lateral portions of the cerebellum (neocerebellum)

are part of a feedback circuit to premotor & motor cortex
that is concerned with planning & organizing voluntary movement.
 Diagram of initiation & Control of
Posture & Movement
Cortical Association Areas
Thalamus

Originate the Commands for Voluntary Movement

Cortex, B.G. & Lateral portions of cerebellum

Plan the movement
Special senses & muscles,

Cortico-spinal tracts Rubrospinal, Reticulospinal,

tendons, joints, skin.

Tectospinal, Vestibulospinal
Corticobulbar tracts
Motor neurons spinal cord & in brain stem.

Adjusted & smooth movement

 Control of Axial & Distal Muscles
The medial (or ventral corticospinal tract ) = Pyramidal system.
From the brain stem (the tectospinal, reticulospinal, & vestibulospinal)
Control m. of trunk & proximal portions of the limbs.
To adjust Posture & gross movements .

The lateral corticospinal & rubrospinal tract = Extra Pyramidal Sys.

From the cerbral cortex and red nucleus.
Control m. of distal portions of the limbs
To adjust fine, skilled movements.

Any Motor neuron above the terminal spinal segment is = UMN

Alpha Motor neuron in the terminal spinal segment = LMN
 Plasticity
In humans, both motor cortex & sensory cortex shows the same
kind of plasticity.
The finger areas of the contra-lateral motor cortex enlarge as a
pattern of rapid finger movement is learned.
This change is detectable at 1 week & maximal at 4 weeks.

When a small focal ischemic lesion is produced in the hand area of the
motor cortex of monkeys, the hand area may reappear, with return
of motor function, in an adjacent undamaged part of the cortex.

Thus, the maps of the motor cortex are not immutable, and they
change with experience.
 Posture Regulation Systems
The posture-regulating mechanisms are multiple.
(They involve a series of nuclei & structures)
including the spinal cord, the brain stem, & the C.C.
There is integration between these levels of control
At the spinal cord level, afferent impulses produce simple reflex.
At higher levels in the N.S., neural connections of increasing
complexity mediate increasingly complicated motor response.
Posture control concerned with both:-
1. Static posture regulation.
2. Dynamic posture regulation. (concert with corticospinal &
corticobulbar systems, with initiation & control of movement.
 Postural Control
Control of posture involve two types of reflexes:-
1. Static reflexes:-
Involve sustained contraction of the musculature
2. Dynamic, short-term phasic reflexes.
Involve transient movements.
Both are integrated at various levels in the CNS from the S.C. to
the C.C. & are effected through various motor pathways.
A major factor in postural control is variation in the threshold of the
spinal stretch reflexes, which is caused in turn by changes in the
excitability of motor neurons and, indirectly, by changes in the
rate of discharge in the efferent neurons to muscle spindles.
 Supraspinal Regulation of Stretch
Reflexes

The brain areas that facilitate & inhibit stretch reflexes:

1. Motor cortex. Inhibitory

2. Basal ganglia. Inhibitory
3. Cerebellum. Inhibitory
4. Reticular Inhibitory area.
5. Reticular Facilitatory area.
6. Vestibular nuclei.
 Supraspinal Regulation of Stretch
Reflexes (brain stem)
Inhibitory & facilitatory impulses from the higher centres
descend in the lateral funiculus of the spinal cord.

When the brain stem is transected at level of top of the pons:-

* 2 of the 3 inhibitory areas are removed.
* Discharge of the facilitatory area continues.

So the balance of facilitatory & inhibitory impulses converging on

the efferent neurons shifts toward facilitation.

Gamma efferent discharge is increased, & stretch reflexes become

hyperactive
Causing rigidity
 Supraspinal Regulation of Stretch
Reflexes (Cerebellum)
In the previous transection:
- The cerebellar inhibitory area is still present.

So in decerebrate animals:-
Removal of the cerebellum
increases the rigidity.

The role of cerebellum

The influence of cerebellum distruction is complex & the
net effect of cerebellar distruction is hypotonia.
 Supraspinal Regulation of Stretch
Reflexes (Vestibular nu.)
The vestibulospinal are also facilitatory to stretch
reflexes & promote rigidity.

The vestibulospinal tract:-

- Pass primarily in the anterior funiculus of the S.C.
- The rigidity due to increased discharge in them is not
abolished by deafferentation of the muscles.
This indicates that this rigidity is due to a direct action on the
motor neurons to increase their excitability, rather than
an effect mediated through the small motor nerve system,
which would, of course, be blocked by deafferentation.