AC STEADY-STATE ANALYSIS

LEARNING GOALS

SINUSOIDS
Review basic facts about sinusoidal signals

SINUSOIDAL AND COMPLEX FORCING FUNCTIONS

Behavior of circuits with sinusoidal independent sources
and modeling of sinusoids in terms of complex exponentials

PHASORS
Representation of complex exponentials as vectors. It facilitates
steady-state analysis of circuits.

IMPEDANCE AND ADMITANCE

Generalization of the familiar concepts of resistance and
conductance to describe AC steady state circuit operation

PHASOR DIAGRAMS
Representation of AC voltages and currents as complex vectors

BASIC AC ANALYSIS USING KIRCHHOFF LAWS

ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
Extension of node, loop, Thevenin and other techniques
 SINUSOIDS

x(t ) X M sin t

Adimensional plot As function of time

X M amplitude or maximum value

angular frequency (rads/sec) " leads by "
t argument (radians)
2
T Period x (t ) x (t T ), t

1
f frequency in Hertz (cycle/sec)
T 2
2 f " lags by "
BASIC TRIGONOMETRY
RADIANS AND DEGREES
ESSENTIAL IDENTITIES
sin( ) sin cos cos sin 2 radians 360 degrees
cos( ) cos cos sin sin 180
(rads) (degrees)
sin( ) sin
cos( ) cos
ACCEPTED EE CONVENTION
SOME DERIVED IDENTITIES

sin( ) sin cos cos sin sin( t ) sin( t 90)
2
cos( ) cos cos sin sin
1 1
sin cos sin( ) sin( )
2 2
1 1
cos cos cos( ) cos( )
2 2
APPLICATIO NS

cos t sin( t )
2

sin t cos( t )
2
cos t cos( t )
sin t sin( t )
LEARNING EXAMPLE
cos( t )

Lags by 315
Leads by 45 degrees
cos( t 45)
cos( t 45 360)

cos( t 45) Leads by 225 or lags by 135

cos( t 45 180)
LEARNING EXAMPLE

v1 (t ) 12 sin(1000t 60), v2 (t ) 6 cos(1000t 30)

FIND FREQUENCY AND PHASE ANGLE BETWEEN VOLTAGES
Frequency in radians per second is the factor of the time variable 1000 sec1

f ( Hz) 159.2 Hz
2
To find phase angle we must express both sinusoids using the same
trigonometric function; either sine or cosine with positive amplitude

take care of minus sign with cos( ) cos( 180)

6 cos(1000t 30) 6 cos(1000t 30 180)

Change sine into cosine with cos( ) sin( 90)

6 cos(1000t 210) 6 sin(1000t 210 90)
We like to have the phase shifts less than 180 in absolute value
6 sin(1000t 300) 6 sin(1000t 60)
v1 (t ) 12 sin(1000t 60) (1000t 60) (1000t 60) 120
v1 leads v2 by 120
v2 (t ) 6 sin(1000t 60) (1000t 60) (1000t 60) 120
v2 lags v1 by 120
LEARNING EXTENSION

i1 (t ) 2 sin( 377t 45)

i2 (t ) 0.5 cos(377t 10)
i3 (t ) 0.25 sin( 377t 60)
i1 leads i2 by_____?
i1 leads i3 by_____?

cos sin( 90)

0.5 cos(377t 10) 0.5 sin( 377t 10 90)
(377t 45) (377 100) 55
i1 leads i2 by 55
sin sin( 180)
0.25 sin( 377t 60) 0.25 sin( 377t 60 180)
(377t 45) (377t 120) 165
i1 leads i3 by 165
 SINUSOIDAL AND COMPLEX FORCING FUNCTIONS

Learning Example

di
KVL : L (t ) Ri (t ) v (t )
dt
In steady state i (t ) A cos( t ), or
i (t ) A1 cos t A2 sin t */ R
If the independent sources are sinusoids di
of the same frequency then for any (t ) A1 sin t A2 cos t */ L
dt
variable in the linear circuit the steady
state response will be sinusoidal and of ( LA1 RA2 ) sin t ( LA2 RA1 ) cos t
the same frequency VM cos t
LA1 RA2 0 algebraic problem
v (t ) Asin( t ) iSS (t ) B sin( t )
To determine the steady state solution LA2 RA1 VM
we only need to determine the parameters A1 RVM , A2 LVM
B, R 2
(L) 2
R 2
(L) 2

Determining the steady state solution can

be accomplished with only algebraic tools!
FURTHER ANALYSIS OF THE SOLUTION
The solution is i (t ) A1 cos t A2 sin t
The applied voltage is v (t ) VM cos t
For comparison purposes one can write i (t ) A cos( t )
A1 A cos , A2 Asin A A12 A22 , tan
A2
A1
RVM LVM
A1 , A
R 2 (L) 2 R 2 (L) 2
2

VM 1 L
A , tan
R 2 (L) 2 R
VM 1 L
i (t ) cos( t tan )
R (L)
2 2
R
For L 0 the current ALWAYS lags the voltage

If R 0 (pure inductor) the current lags the voltage by 90

SOLVING A SIMPLE ONE LOOP CIRCUIT CAN BE VERY LABORIOUS
IF ONE USES SINUSOIDAL EXCITATIONS

TO MAKE ANALYSIS SIMPLER ONE RELATES SINUSOIDAL SIGNALS

TO COMPLEX NUMBERS. THE ANALYSIS OF STEADY STATE WILL BE
CONVERTED TO SOLVING SYSTEMS OF ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS ...

WITH COMPLEX VARIABLES

ESSENTIAL IDENTITY : e j cos j sin (Euler identity)

v (t ) VM cos t y (t ) A cos( t )
v (t ) VM sin t y (t ) A sin( t ) * / j (and add)
y(t )
VM e j t Ae j (t ) Ae j e j t
If everybody knows the frequency of the sinusoid
then one can skip the term exp(jwt)

VM Ae j
 Learning Example tan 1
L
R jL R2 (L )2 e R

L
VM tan 1
I M e j e R
R 2 (L ) 2
v (t ) VM e j t
VM L
IM , tan 1
Assume i (t ) I M e ( j t ) R 2 (L ) 2 R
di
KVL : L (t ) Ri (t ) v (t ) v (t ) VM cos t Re{VM e j t }
dt
di i (t ) Re{I M e ( j t ) } I M cos( t )
(t ) jI M e ( j t )
dt
di
L (t ) Ri (t ) jLI M e ( j t ) RI M e ( j t )
dt
C P
( jL R) I M e ( j t )
x jy re j
( jL R) I M e j e jt
x
r x 2 y 2 , tan 1
( jL R) I M e j e j t VM e j t y
VM R jL x r cos , y r sin
I M e j */
jL R R jL
VM ( R jL)
I M e j
R 2 (L) 2
 PHASORS
ESSENTIAL CONDITION
ALL INDEPENDENT SOURCES ARE SINUSOIDS OF THE SAME FREQUENCY

BECAUSE OF SOURCE SUPERPOSITION ONE CAN CONSIDER A SINGLE SOURCE

u(t ) U M cos( t )
THE STEADY STATE RESPONSE OF ANY CIRCUIT VARIABLE WILL BE OF THE FORM
y(t ) YM cos( t )
j ( t )
SHORTCUT 1 u(t ) U M e j ( t ) y(t ) YM e
j ( t )
Re{U M e j ( t ) } Re{YM e }

NEW IDEA: U M e j ( t ) U M e j e jt u U M e j y YM e j
SHORTCUT IN NOTATION
INSTEAD OF WRITING u U M e j WE WRITE u U M
... AND WE ACCEPT ANGLES IN DEGREES
U M IS THE PHASOR REPRESENTA TION FOR U M cos( t )
u(t ) U M cos( t ) U U M Y YM y(t ) Re{YM cos( t )}
SHORTCUT 2: DEVELOP EFFICIENT TOOLS TO DETERMINE THE PHASOR OF
THE RESPONSE GIVEN THE INPUT PHASOR(S)
 Learning Example Learning Extensions

It is essential to be able to move from

sinusoids to phasor representation
A cos(t ) A
V V M 0 A sin(t ) A 90
v Ve jt v (t ) 12 cos(377t 425) 12 425
I I M y(t ) 18 sin( 2513t 4.2) 18 85.8
jt
di
L (t ) Ri (t ) v i Ie
dt Given f 400 Hz
L( jIe jt ) RIe jt Ve jt V1 1020 v1 (t ) 10 cos(800 t 20)
In terms of phasors one has V2 12 60 v2 (t ) 12 cos(800 t 60)
jLI RI V
Phasors can be combined using the
V
I rules of complex algebra
R jL
(V11)(V2 2 ) V1V2(1 2 )
The phasor can be obtained using
V11 V1
only complex algebra (1 2 )
V2 2 V2
We will develop a phasor representation
for the circuit that will eliminate the need
of writing the differential equation
 PHASOR RELATIONSHIPS FOR CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

RESISTORS v (t ) Ri (t )
VM e ( j t ) RI M e ( j t )
VM e j RI M e j
V RI Phasor representation for a resistor

Phasors are complex numbers. The resistor

model has a geometric interpretation

The voltage and current

phasors are colineal

In terms of the sinusoidal signals this

geometric representation implies that
the two sinusoids are in phase
 d
INDUCTORS VM e ( j t ) L ( I M e ( j t ) ) Relationship between sinusoids
dt
jLI M e ( j t )

VM e j jLI M e j

V jLI

Learning Example
The relationship between L 20mH , v (t ) 12 cos(377t 20). Find i (t )
phasors is algebraic
For the geometric view
377
1220
use the result V 1220 I ( A)
L90
j 190 e j 90 I
V 12
jL I 70( A)
V LI90 377 20 103
12
i (t ) 3
cos(377t 70)
377 20 10
The voltage leads the current by 90 deg
The current lags the voltage by 90 deg
 d Relationship between sinusoids
CAPACITORS I M e ( j t ) C (VM e ( j t ) )
dt
I M e j jCe j

I CV90

I jCV

Learning Example
C 100 F , v (t ) 100 cos(314t 15). Find i (t )
The relationship between 314
phasors is algebraic
V 10015 I C 190 10015
In a capacitor the I jCV
current leads the
voltage by 90 deg
I 314 100 106 100105( A)

i (t ) 3.14 cos(314t 105)( A)

The voltage lags
the current by 90 deg
LEARNING EXTENSIONS C 150 F , I 3.6 145, f 60 Hz
L 0.05 H , I 4 30( A), f 60 Hz Find the voltage across the inductor
Find the voltage across the inductor 2 f 120
2 f 120
I
V jLI I jCV V
jC
V 120 0.05 190 4 30
3.6 145
V 2460 V
120 150 106 190
v (t ) 24 cos(120 60) V
200
235

200
Now an example with capacitors v (t ) cos(120 t 235)

IMPEDANCE AND ADMITTANCE

For each of the passive components the relationship between the voltage phasor
and the current phasor is algebraic. We now generalize for an arbitrary 2-terminal
element
Z ( ) R( ) jX ( )
R( ) Resistive component
X ( ) Reactive component
| Z | R 2 X 2
X
z tan 1
R

(INPUT) IMPEDANCE

V V V
Element Phasor Eq. Impedance
Z M v M ( v i ) | Z | z
I I M i I M R V RI ZR
V jLI Z j L
(DRIVING POINT IMPEDANCE) L
1 1
C V I Z
The units of impedance are OHMS j C j C
Impedance is NOT a phasor but a complex
number that can be written in polar or
Cartesian form. In general its value depends
on the frequency
KVL AND KCL HOLD FOR PHASOR REPRESENTATIONS

v2 (t )
i0 (t )
i1 (t ) i2 ( t ) i3 (t )
v1 ( t ) v3 ( t )

KVL: v1(t ) v2 (t ) v3 (t ) 0 KCL : i0 (t ) i1 (t ) i2 (t ) i3 (t ) 0
vi (t ) VMie j ( t i ) , i 1,2,3 ik (t ) I Mk e j ( t k ) , k 0,1,2,3

In a similar way, one shows ...

KVL : (VM 1e j1 VM 2e j 2 VM 3e j 3 )e jt 0
VM11 VM 2 2 VM 33 0
V1 V2 V3 0 Phasors!
I0 I1 I 2 I3 0
V2
I0
I1 I2 I3
V1 V3

The components will be represented by their impedances and the relationships
will be entirely algebraic!!
 SPECIAL APPLICATION:
IMPEDANCES CAN BE COMBINED USING THE SAME RULES DEVELOPED
FOR RESISTORS
I I
V1 V2
I I Z1Z 2
Z1 Z2 V V Zp
Z1 Z2 Zs Z1 Z2 Z1 Z 2

Z s k Zk
1 1
k
Zp Zk
f 60 Hz, v (t ) 50 cos( t 30)
LEARNING EXAMPLE
Compute equivalent impedance and current
120 , V 5030, Z R 25
1
Z L j120 20 103 , Z C
ZR R j120 50 106
Z L j 7.54, ZC j53.05
Z s Z R Z L ZC 25 j 45.51
Z L jL
V 5030 5030
I ( A) ( A)
1 Z s 25 j 45.51 51.93 61.22
ZC
jC I 0.9691.22( A) i (t ) 0.96 cos(120 t 91.22)( A)
 LEARNING EXTENSION FIND i (t )

377
Z R 20

Z L j377 40 103 j15.08

V 120(60 90)
j
ZC j53.05
377 50 106
Zeq ZC || ( Z R Z L ) Zeq 30.5616 + j4.9714 30.9639.239

V 120 30
I 3.876 39.924( A)
Zeq 30.9639.239
 (COMPLEX) ADMITTANCE Parallel Combinatio n of Admittances
1 Y p Yk
Y G jB (Siemens) k
Z
YR 0.1S 1
G conductanc e YC j1( S )
j1
B Suceptanc e
Y p 0.1 j1( S )
1 1 R jX R jX
2
Z R jX R jX R X 2 Series Combinatio n of Admittanc es
1 1
G
R
R2 X 2 Ys k Yk
X
B 2 1 1 1
R X2 0.1S
Ys 0.1 j 0.1
Element Phasor Eq. Impedance Admittance j 0.1S 10 j10
1
R V RI ZR Y G
R (0.1)( j 0.1) 0.1 j 0.1
Ys
1 0.1 j 0.1 0.1 j 0.1
V jLI Z j L Y
L j L 1 10 j10
1 Ys
C V I 1 10 j10 200
jC Z Y j C
jC Ys 0.05 j 0.05 S
LEARNING EXAMPLE VS 6045(V ) LEARNING EXTENSION
FIND Y p , I

Y p 0.5 j 0.5 j1 0.25 0.75 j 0.5( S )

Y p YR YL
0.5 j 0.25 Y p 0.901433.69( S )
2 j4 2 j4
Zp Yp 0.5 j 0.25( S )
2 j4 j8 I Y pV 0.901433.69 1020
I Y pV (0.5 j 0.25) 6045( A) I 9.01453.79( A)

I 0.559 26.565 6045( A)

I 33.5418.435( A)
LEARNING EXAMPLE SERIES-PARALLEL REDUCTIONS
1 2 j4
Y2 2
Z3 4 j 2 2 j 4 (2) (4) 2
1 4 j2
Y34
4 j2 20

Y4 j 0.25 j 0.5 j 0.25

Z 4 1 / Y4 j 4

1 ( j 2)
Z1 j 4 ( j 2) 8
1 j2 Z4
j4 j2 j2
1
Z1 Y2 0.1 j 0.2( S )
1 j 0.5
1 j 0.5 Y34 0.2 j 0.1
Z1 Z2 2 j 6 j 2 2 j 4 Y234 0.3 j 0.1( S )
1 (0.5) 2
Z1 0.8 j 0.4() Z34 4 j 2 1 1 0.3 j 0.1
Z 234
Y234 0.3 j 0.1 0.1
Z 2 Z34
Z 234 3 j1
Z 2 Z34
Zeq Z1 Z234 3.8 j 0.6 3.8478.973
LEARNING EXTENSION FIND THE IMPEDANCE ZT

Z1 4 j 6 j 4
Z1 4 j 2 ( R P ) Z1 4.47226.565
Y1 0.224 26.565
( P R)Y1 0.200 j 0.100

Y12 Y1 Y2 0.45 j 0.35

Y12 Y1 Y2 ( R P )Y12 0.570 37.875
1 Z2 2 j 2 ( R P ) Z2 2.82845 Z12 1.75437.875
Z12
Y12 Y2 0.354 45 ( P R) Z12 1.384 j1.077
( P R)Y2 0.250 j 0.250
1 4 j2 ZT 2 (1.384 j1077) 3.383 j1.077
Y1 2
4 j 2 (4) (2) 2
1 2 j2
Y2 2
2 j 2 (2) (2) 2
1 1 0.45 j 0.35
Z12
Y12 0.45 j 0.35 0.325
PHASOR DIAGRAMS
Display all relevant phasors on a common reference frame
Very useful to visualize phase relationships among variables.
Especially if some variable, like the frequency, can change

LEARNING EXAMPLE SKETCH THE PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR THE CIRCUIT

Any one variable can be chosen as reference.
For this case select the voltage V

V V
KCL : I S jCV
R jL

(capacitiv e)
| I L || IC | | I L || IC |

IC jCV

V
IL (inductive )
jl CAPACITIVE CASE
INDUCTIVE CASE
LEARNING EXAMPLE DO THE PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR THE CIRCUIT

377( s 1 ) 2. PUT KNOWN NUMERICAL VALUES

| VL VC || VR |

VR RI
VL jLI DIAGRAM WITH REFERENCE VS 12 290
It is convenient to select
1 the current as reference VL 18135(V ) Read values from
VC I
j C diagram!
VS VR VL VC I 345( A)
1. DRAW ALL THE PHASORS VR 1245(V )
(Pythagoras)

| VL || VC | VC 6 45
LEARNING BY DOING FIND THE FREQUENCY AT WHICH v (t ) AND i (t )
ARE IN PHASE
i.e., the phasors for i (t ), v (t ) are co - lineal
1
C V I jLI RI
jC
v (t ) L Notice that I was
PHASOR DIAGRAM chosen as reference
R
jLI 1
V I jLI RI
jC

1 RI I
I
jC

1 1
V and I are co - lineal iff jL 0 2
jC LC
1
2 3 6
109
3.162 10 4
(rad / s)
10 10

f 5.033 103 Hz
2
LEARNING EXTENSION Draw a phasor diagram illustrating all voltages and currents

j4 4 90 Current
I1 I 445
2 j4 4.472 63.435 divider
I1 3.57818.435( A)
1 20
I2 I 445
2 j4 4.472 63.435
I 2 1.789108.435 Simpler than I 2 I I1
V 2 I1 7.15618.435(V )

DRAW PHASORS. ALL ARE

KNOWN. NO NEED TO SELECT
A REFERENCE
BASIC ANALYSIS USING KIRCHHOFFS LAWS

PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGY

For relatively simple circuits use

Ohm' s law for AC analysis; i.e., V IZ

The rules for combining Z and Y
KCL AND KVL
Current and voltage divider
For more complex circuits use

Node analysis
Loop analysis
Superposit ion
Source transformation
Thevenin' s and Norton' s theorems
MATLAB
PSPICE
 LEARNING EXAMPLE COMPUTE ALL THE VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS

Compute I1
Use current divider for I2 , I3
Ohm' s law for V1 , V2

V1 690 I 2 V2 4 90 I3
Zeq 4 ( j 6 || 8 j 4)
V1 16.2678.42(V )
24 j 48 32 j8 24 j 48
Zeq 4 V2 7.2815(V )
8 j2 8 j2
56 j56 79.19645
Zeq 9.60430.964()
8 j2 8.24614.036
V 2460
I1 S 2.49829.036( A)
Zeq 9.60430.964
j6 690
I3 I1 2.49829.036( A)
8 j2 8.24614.036
8 j4 8.944 26.565
I2 I1 2.49829.036( A)
8 j2 8.24614.036
I1 2.529.06 I 2 2.71 11.58 I3 1.82105
LEARNING EXTENSION IF VO 845, COMPUTE VS

THE PLAN...

COMPUTE I3
COMPUTE V1
COMPUTE I2 , I1
COMPUTE VS
VO
I3 ( A) 445( A)
2
V1 (2 j 2) I3 8 45 445
V1 11.3140(V ) VS 2 I1 V1 2(2.828 j 2.829) 11.3140
V1 11.3140 VS 16.97 j5.658(V )
I2 5.657 90( A)
j2 290
VS 17.888 18.439
I1 I 2 I3 5.657 90 445
I1 j5.657 (2.828 j 2.828)( A)
I1 2.828 j 2.829( A)
ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
PURPOSE: TO REVIEW ALL CIRCUIT ANALYSIS TOOLS DEVELOPED FOR
RESISTIVE CIRCUITS; I.E., NODE AND LOOP ANALYSIS, SOURCE SUPERPOSITION,
SOURCE TRANSFORMATION, THEVENINS AND NORTONS THEOREMS.

COMPUTE I0 V2 60 V
20 V2 2 0
1 j1 1 j1
1 1 6
V2 1 2
1 j1 1 j1 1 j1

(1 j1) (1 j1)(1 j1) (1 j1) 2(1 j1) 6

V2
(1 j1)(1 j1) 1 j1
4
V2 8 j2
1. NODE ANALYSIS 1 j
(4 j )(1 j )
V1 V V V2
20 2 2 0 2
1 j1 1 1 j1
5 3
V1 V2 60 I 0 j ( A) I0 2.92 30.96
2 2

I0
V2
( A) NEXT: LOOP ANALYSIS
1
 2. LOOP ANALYSIS

ONE COULD ALSO USE THE SUPERMESH

TECHNIQUE

SOURCE IS NOT SHARED AND Io IS

DEFINED BY ONE LOOP CURRENT I2
I 0 I3
LOOP 1 : I1 20
LOOP 2 : (1 j )( I1 I 2 ) 60 (1 j )( I 2 I3 ) 0
LOOP 3 : (1 j )( I 2 I3 ) I3 0 CONSTRAINT : I1 I 2 20
MUST FIND I3 SUPERMESH : (1 j ) I1 60 ( I 2 I 3 ) 0
2 I 2 (1 j ) I3 6 (1 j )(2) MESH 3 : ( I 3 I 2 ) (1 j ) I 3 0
/* (1 j )
/* ( 2) I 0 I 2 I3
(1 j ) I 2 (2 j ) I3 0
(1 j)
2(2 j ) I3 (1 j )(8 2 j )
2
NEXT: SOURCE SUPERPOSITION
10 6 j 5 3
I3 I 0 j ( A)
4 2 2
 Circuit with voltage source
SOURCE SUPERPOSITION set to zero (SHORT CIRCUITED)

1 I L2
I L

= V 1 + VL2
L

Circuit with current

source set to zero(OPEN)

Due to the linearity of the models we must have

I L I L1 I L2 VL VL1 VL2 Principle of Source Superposition

The approach will be useful if solving the two circuits is simpler, or more convenient, than
solving a circuit with two sources

We can have any combination of sources. And we can partition any way we find convenient
3. SOURCE SUPERPOSITION

I 0' 10( A)

(1 j )(1 j )
Z ' (1 j ) || (1 j ) 1
(1 j ) (1 j )
COULD USE SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
TO COMPUTE I"0

Z" Z"
V1" " 60(V ) I 0 "
"
60( A)
Z 1 j Z 1 j
Z" 1 j 1 j
I 0" 6
2 j (1 j ) 3 j
I 0" 6 ( A)
1 j
1 j I "

6 6
j ( A)
2 j 0
4 4
5 3
I 0 I 0' I 0" j ( A)
Z " 1 || (1 j ) 2 2
NEXT: SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
 Source transformation is a good tool to reduce complexity in a circuit ...
WHEN IT CAN BE APPLIED!!

ideal sources are not good models for real behavior of sources
A real battery does not produce infinite current when short-circuited

ZV ZI
a a THE MODELS ARE EQUIVALENT S WHEN
RV RI
+ RV RI R Z I Z VZ
- VS
IS VS RI S S IZ SV
b b
Improved model Improved model
for voltage source for current source

Source Transformationcan be used to determine the Thevenin or Norton Equivalent...

BUT THERE MAY BE MORE EFFICIENT TECHNIQUES

4. SOURCE TRANSFORMATION

8 2j
IS
1 j

Z (1 j ) || (1 j ) 1

V ' 8 2 j

Now a voltage to current transformation

NEXT: THEVENIN

I S 4 j (4 j )(1 j ) 5 3 j
I0
2 1 j (1 j )(1 j ) 2
 THEVENINS EQUIVALENCE THEOREM

LINEAR CIRCUIT i a LINEAR CIRCUIT

May contain May contain
independent and independent and
dependent sources vO dependent sources
with their controlling with their controlling
variables _ b variables
PART A PART B

ZTH RTH i a

LINEAR CIRCUIT
vTH vO
PART B
_ b
PART A
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
Phasor
for PART A
vTH Thevenin Equivalent Source Impedance
RTH Thevenin Equivalent Resistance
5. THEVENIN ANALYSIS Voltage Divider
1 j 10 6 j
VOC (8 2 j )
(1 j ) (1 j ) 2

ZTH (1 j ) || (1 j ) 1

53j
8 2j I0 ( A)
2
NEXT: NORTON
 NORTONS EQUIVALENCE THEOREM

LINEAR CIRCUIT i a LINEAR CIRCUIT

May contain May contain
independent and independent and
dependent sources vO dependent sources
with their controlling with their controlling
variables _ b variables
PART A PART B

Phasors

i a

ZN LINEAR CIRCUIT
iN RN vO
PART B
_ b
PART A
Norton Equivalent Circuit
for PART A
iN Thevenin Equivalent Source Impedance
RNZ N Thevenin Equivalent Resistance
6. NORTON ANALYSIS

ZTH (1 j ) || (1 j ) 1

I SC 4 j (4 j )(1 j ) 5 3 j
I0
2 1 j (1 j )(1 j ) 2

Possible techniques: loops, source

transformation, superposition
BY SUPERPOSTI ON
60 8 2 j
I SC 20 ( A)
1 j 1 j
LEARNING EXAMPLE FIND V0 USING NODES, LOOPS, THEVENIN, NORTON
WHY SKIP SUPERPOSITION AND TRANSFORMATION?

Supernode constraint : V1 V3 120

KCL @ Supernode
V V0 V3 V2 V1 V2 V3
40 3 0
1 1 j j
KCL@V2
V2 V1 V V3
2I x 2 0
j 1
NODES
KCL@ V0
V0 V0 V3
40 0 V3 2V0 4
1 1
Controllin g variable V1 V3 12
V3 V0 V1 2V0 16
Ix
1 V3 V0 V0 4
j (V2 2V0 16) 2(V0 4) (V2 2V0 4) 0
j (V2 2V0 16) (V2 2V0 4) (V0 4) j (2V0 4) 4
8 4j
Adding : V0
Notice choice of ground 1 2 j
LOOP ANALYSIS MESH CURRENTS DETERMINED BY SOURCES
I 2 40
I3 2( I 4 4)
I3 2 I x
MESH 1 :
jI1 120 1( I1 I 3 ) 0
MESH 4 :
1( I 4 I 2 ) 1 I 4 j ( I 4 I 3 ) 0
CONTROLLING VARIABLE : I x I 4 I 2
VARIABLE OF INTEREST : V0 1 I 4 (V )
MESH CURRENTS ARE ACCEPTABLE
I 4 4 I 4 j ( I 4 2( I 4 4)) 0
48 j j
( 2 j ) I 4 ( 4 8 j ) I 4
2 j j
8 4j
V0
1 2 j
 Alternative procedure to compute Thevenin
THEVENIN
impedance:
1. Set to zero all INDEPENDENT sources
2. Apply an external probe
Vtest
ZTH
I "x

KVL
FOR OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE I "x

Vtest I "x jI "x ZTH 1 j ()

I x' 40
ZTH 1 j
2I x
80 1
V0 (4 8 j )(V )
2 j
VOC 4 8 j (V )
NORTON Supernode constraint
V1 V3 120 V1 V3 12
KCL@ Supernode
V3 V3 V3 V2 V1 V2
40 0 / j
1 j 1 j
V2 V3 V2 V1
KCL@ V2 : 2 I X''' 0 / ( j )
1 j
V
Controllin g Variable : I x''' 3
1
I SC
2 jV3 j (V2 V3 ) (V2 V3 12) 0
(1 j )V2 (1 3 j )V3 12
(1 j )V3 jV3 jV2 (V3 12) V2 4 j
(1 j )V2 2 jV3 12 4 j
4j 48j
(1 j )V3 4 j V3 I SC
V3 1 j 1 j
I x''' ( A)
1 (4 8 j ) j 8 4j
I SC
(1 j ) j 1 j
Now we can draw the Norton
I SC I x''' 4 Equivalent circuit ...

USE NODES
 NORTONS EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

ZTH
I SC

1 j 8 4 j
V0 (1) I 0 (V ) (V ) Current Divider
2 j 1 j

EQUIVALENCE OF SOLUTIONS

12 4 j (8 4 j )(1 j )
Using Nortons method V0
3 j (1 2 j )(1 j )
48j j
Using Thevenins V0
2 j j
8 4j
Using Node and Loop methods V0
1 2 j
LEARNING EXTENSION COMPUTE V0 USE THEVENIN
USE NODAL ANALYSIS 4j
V1 ZTH 2 || 1 || j 2 3 4 j 4 j (2 6 j )
2 j2 2 6 j 40
3
1 || j 2 j2
VOC 1230 1230
2 (1 || j 2) 2(1 2 j ) 2 j
24120 12120
V1 1230 V1 V1 V1 V0 VOC
0 / 2 j 26j 1 3 j
2 1 j2 j
V0 V1 V0
0 V1 (1 j )V0 ZTH j1
j 1
j (V1 1230) 2 jV1 V1 2(V1 V0 ) 0
2V0 (1 2 2 j j )(1 j )V0 j1230 VOC
+
- 1 V0
(2 (1 3 j )(1 j ))V0 190 1230
12120 12120
V0 2.1275(V ) 1
44j 5.6645 V0 VOC
ZTH 1 j
LEARNING EXTENSION COMPUTE V0 USING MESH ANALYSIS

V1 USING NODES
V1 240 V
290 1 0
2 22j
2
V0 V1
22j

USING SOURCE SUPERPOSITION

2
CONSTRAINT V0V 240
222j
I1 I 2 290 I1 I 2 2 j
SUPERMESH V0I 2
2
290
240 2 I1 2 jI 2 2 I 2 0 42j
2( I 2 2 j ) (2 2 j ) I 2 24 (4 2 j ) I 2 24 4 j V0 V0V V0I
24 4 j 24.339.46
V0 2 I 2 10.8636.03
2 j 2.24 26.57
 LEARNING EXTENSION COMPUTE V0 2V

V0"

V0 V0' V0"

1. USING SUPERPOSITION
(2 j ) || (2 2 j )
2 || (2 2 j ) V2 240
V1 2 (2 j || (2 2 j )
2
V0" V2
2 || (2 2 j ) 22j
V1 (120)
j 2 (2 || 2 2 j )

V0'
2
V0' V1
22j
2. USE SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
2j

I1
Z 2 V0
I eq

Ieq 120 6 90 12 6 j
Z
I1 I eq
Z 22j
V0 2I1
j 2

I1 2
V0
120 2 j 2 6 90

Z 2 || j 2
USE NORTONS THEOREM

j2

I1
ZTH 2 V0
I SC

ZTH 2 || j 2
ZTH
I1 I SC
ZTH 2 2 j

V0 2I1
120

6 90

I SC
LEARNING EXAMPLE Find the current i(t) in steady state
The sources have different frequencies!
For phasor analysis MUST use source superpositio

SOURCE 1: FREQUENCY 10 r/s Frequency domain

SOURCE 2: FREQUENCY 20r/s

Principle of superposition
USING MATLAB Phasors Rectangula r z 1045
a=45; % angle in degrees
MATLAB recognizes complex numbers ar=a*pi/180, %convert degrees to radians
in rectangular representation. It does ar =
NOT recognize Phasors 0.7854
m=10; %define magnitude
Unless previously re-defined, MATLAB x=m*cos(ar); %real part
recognizes i or j as imaginary units x =
7.0711
z2=3+4j y=m*sin(ar); %imaginary part
y =
z2 = 7.0711
z=x+i*y
3.0000 + 4.0000i z =
7.0711 + 7.0711i
z1=4+6i
z = 7.0711 + 7.0711i;
mp=abs(z); %compute magnitude
z1 =
mp =
10
4.0000 + 6.0000i
arr=angle(z); %compute angle in RADIANS
In its output MATLAB always uses i for arr =
0.7854
the imaginary unit adeg=arr*180/pi; %convert to degres
adeg =
45
x=real(z)
x=
7.0711
y=imag(z)
y=
7.70711
LEARNING EXAMPLE COMPUTE ALL NODE VOLTAGES
V1 1230
V1 (1 j 0.5 j )V2 jV3 0.5 jV5 0
jV2 ( j 0.5 1)V3 0.5V5 0
0.5V1 (0.5 1 j )V4 V5 0
0.5 jV2 0.5V3 V4 (1 0.5 j 0.5 j )V5 245

V1 1230 1 0 0 0 0 V1 1230
1 1 j 0.5 j1 V
V2 V1 V2 V3 V2 V5
0 j 0.5
0
0 2

1 j1 j2 0 j1 1.5 j1 0 0.5
V3 0
V3 V2 V3 V5 V3 0.5 0 0 1.5 j1 1 V4 0
0
j1 2 1 0 j 0.5 0.5 1 1 .5 j 0.5 5
V 2 45
V4 V1 V4 V5 V4
0 YV I R
2 1 j1
V V4 V5 V2 V5 V3 V5 V Y 1I R
245 5 0
1 j2 2 j1
%example8p18
%define the RHS vector.
ir=zeros(5,1); %initialize and define non zero values Echo of Answer
ir(1)=12*cos(30*pi/180)+j*12*sin(30*pi/180); v =
ir(5)=2*cos(pi/4)+j*2*sin(pi/4), %echo the vector
%now define the matrix 10.3923 + 6.0000i
y=[1,0,0,0,0; %first row 7.0766 + 2.1580i
-1,1+0.5j,-j,0,0.5j; %second row 1.4038 + 2.5561i
0,-j,1.5+j,0,-0.5; %third row 3.7661 - 2.9621i
-0.5,0,0,1.5+j,-1; %fourth row 3.4151 - 3.6771i
0,0.5i,-0.5,-1,1.5+0.5i] %last row and do echo
v=y\ir %solve equations and echo the answer
ir =
10.3923 + 6.0000i
0
0 Echo of RHS
0
1.4142 + 1.4142i
y =
Columns 1 through 4
1.0000 0 0 0
-1.0000 1.0000 + 0.5000i 0 - 1.0000i 0
0 0 - 1.0000i 1.5000 + 1.0000i 0
-0.5000 0 0 1.5000 + 1.0000i
0 0 + 0.5000i -0.5000 -1.0000
Column 5
0 Echo of Matrix
0 + 0.5000i
-0.5000
-1.0000
1.5000 + 0.5000i
LEARNING EXAMPLE FIND THE CURRENT I_o

6 meshes and two current sources

5 non-reference nodes and two
voltage sources slight advantage
for nodes
NODE EQUATIONS
MATRIX FORM
MATLAB COMMANDS

LINEAR EQUATION

ANSWER
AC PSPICE ANALYSIS
Circuit ready to be simulated

Select and place components

R L

Ground set, meters specified

C
VAC

Wire and set correct attributes

**** AC ANALYSIS TEMPERATURE = 27.000 DEG C

************************************************************************
******
Results in output file

FREQ VM($N_0003) VP($N_0003)

6.000E+01 2.651E+00 -3.854E+01

**** 05/20/01 09:03:41 *********** Evaluation PSpice (Nov 1999)

**************

* C:\ECEWork\IrwinPPT\ACSteadyStateAnalysis\Sec7p9Demo.sch

**** AC ANALYSIS TEMPERATURE = 27.000 DEG C

************************************************************************
******

FREQ IM(V_PRINT2)IP(V_PRINT2)

6.000E+01 2.998E-03 5.146E+01

LEARNING APPLICATION NOISE REJECTION

Noise has much higher frequency (700kHz) than signal.

Find a way to block high frequencies

Impedance X should have low (zero) value at low

frequencies and very high at noise frequency

Reduce amplitude of noise by 10

EXAMPLE A GENERAL IMPEDANCE CONVERTER (GIC)

VA VC VIN (ideal OpAmp)

@A:

@C:

@E:

Suitable choices of impedances

Permit to create any desired equivale

A 1kOhm resistor coverts to 1 H equivalent inductance!!

LEARNING BY DESIGN
USING PASSIVE COMPONENTS TO CREATE GAINS LARGER THAN ONE

PRODUCE A GAIN=10
AT 1KhZ WHEN R=100

2 LC 1 C 15.9 F

L 1.59mH
LEARNING BY DESIGN PASSIVE SUMMING CIRCUIT - BIAS T NETWORK

vO ( t ) 2.5 2.5cos t , 2 f ; f 1GHz

B should have zero impedance for DC and block high frequencie

PROPOSED A should block DC and have very low impedance at 1GHz
SOLUTION
AT DC THE CAPACITOR IS ALWAYS OPEN CIRCUIT
BUT AT 1GHz ONE WOULD NEED INFINITE INDUCTANCE.

JUST MAKE THE IMPEDANCES VERY DIFFERENT

PROPOSE
C 1; L 10kHz; 2 109

vO ( t ) 2.5 2.50025cos 2 109 t