MBA Slides Research

You are welcome to this
Advanced Research Methodology

Class
J. Mwanza
Research What it is not
The term research has been

used in so many contexts and
with such a variety of
meanings.
Much of what we have been

taught about research is based
on misconceptions.
Research What it is not
What are these

misconceptions?
Number ONE: Searching for

data for an assignment may be
called "research." and the
paper a research paper.
Research -What it is not
What are these

misconceptions?
Number TWO: At other times,

students may just go into the
library, do a search of
information in books,
encyclopaedias and journals
Research- What it is
It is a productive process
Seeks knowledge new or

verification or rejection (Empirical
evidence) Here knowledge means
information about matters.
Seeks to generate processes
(methods)
Seeks at times practical solutions
to problems (pragmatism).
Seeks ways to account or explain
phenomena (Theoretical).
Like all productive processes,
knowledge is needed.
Productive knowledge consists

of process knowledge as well
as product knowledge (Mende,
2000).
We can have a marketing

example.
When manufacturers want to
establish a Toyota factory
outside Japan,
They will not just decide as we

always do.
They will have critical

questions to be answered
begging factual data.
The Japanese will wonder
whether the factory will be
feasible;
The Japanese will think of what
types of Toyota cars to produce,
The Japanese will be worried
about where the factory will be
located and
The Japanese will have to
decide how the factory will
produce the type of Toyota car.
In essence the Japanese will

seek answers to these wonders.
As such they will ask questions.
Let us look at the sample

questions they will ask to help
them arrive at an evidence based
decision.
What is the likelihood that the

factory will be feasible?
What types of Toyota cars to
could be produced in Zambia?
What would be an ideal location
of the factory?
How will the factory produce the
preferred type of the car.
SO we can also say that

research is about answering a
research question or questions.
The research questions related

to the Toyota we have given do
not include a hypothesis. It is
also a type of research question.
Research- Defined
Clifford Woody (Kothari 1988)

research comprises defining and
redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested
solutions; collecting, organizing
and evaluating data; making
deductions and reaching
conclusions; and finally, carefully
testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the
formulating hypothesis.
Research- Defined
The definition presented above

by Clifford Woody (Kothari
1988) should be considered with
a pinch of salt.
Research may not comprise
formulating a hypothesis but a
law or theory or a model or a
conceptual framework.
Research- Defined
Research is translation to
practice of relationships between
facts and theory cyclically (Bless
and Kathuria, 1987).
Research is a controlled empirical

and critical evaluation of
hypotheses or propositions about
presumed relations of given
phenomena (Manion and Cohen,
1987).
Research- Defined
Taking Manion and Cohen (1987)

position for granted that research
is a controlled empirical and critical
evaluation of hypotheses or
propositions about presumed
relations of given phenomena will
put us on a rough road.
Social research may be uncontrolled

Research- Defined
Slesinger and Stephension (1930)

defined research as the
manipulation of things, concept or
symbols for the purpose of
generalizing to extend, correct or
verify knowledge, whether that
knowledge aids in construction of
theory or in practice of an art.
Research- Defined
Slesinger and Stephension (1930)

take things for granted as to what
research is.
They forget that not all research

calls for the manipulation of
things.
Research can be transferable and

show thick descriptions.
Research- Defined
According to Redman and Mory

(1923), research is a systematised
effort to gain new knowledge.
Systematised does not mean a

linear process. It means there is a
given logic, a definite set of
procedures and steps that ought to
be followed.
Research- Defined
While Redman and Mory (1923),

posit that research is a
systematised effort to gain new
knowledge, it may not be. It
may use haphazard methods and
undefined logic a priori.
Research What it is
In a nut shell, research is a

systematic process of
answering a research question.
Why do people do research
to get a research degree

(Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.))
along with its benefits like
better employment, promotion,
increment in salary, etc.
to get a research degree and
then to get a teaching position
in a college or university
To become a scientist in a
research institution
Classification of Research
Research is classified in may

ways and this has brought
confusion ONLY in the
academia and not in
professional practice.
Classification of Research and
confusion
By Purpose
Exploratory
Descriptive
Explanatory
Interpretive
Constructive
Monitoring
Evaluation
Impact evaluation
Impact assessment
Pragmatic
confusion
By dimension
Cross- sectional research

Longitudinal (Prospective and
retrospective or historic)
confusion
By Observation. (or field
research) in a natural setting
with no manipulation
Non experimental (Post test
only)
1. Descriptive
2.Relationships
a. Comparative
b.Correlational
3.Survey
confusion
By manipulation
True Experimental Designs

1. One-Group Pre and Post
test Design
O1 X O2
confusion
By manipulation

Post-test Only Case and Control
Group
X O1
O1 X O2
Test of difference or efficacy
confusion
By manipulation

Pre-test and post-test case
and & control group design
O1 X O2 (Case)
O1 (?) O2 (Control)
confusion
True Experimental Design

Also called the classic
controlled experimental
design because it:
o Controls the assignment of
subjects to experimental
(treatment) and control
groups through the use of a
table of random numbers
confusion
True Experimental Design
o Controls the timing of the

independent variable (treatment)
and which group is exposed to it.
o Controls all other conditions
under which the experiment
takes place.
confusion
By manipulation
Experimental
Pre-test and post-test case

and control group design
O1 Y O2 (Case 1)
O3 X O4 (Case 2)
O5 (?) O6 (Control)
confusion
By manipulation
Experimental
Hybrid design
O1 X O2 (Case 1)
O3 O4 (Case 2)
O5 Y O6 (Control)
- O8 (Control)
confusion
By methodology or
Results
Survey based
Interview based
Focus Group Based
Participatory action research
Operations research
Implementation research
Applied research
Mixed methods design research
Classification Survey
Research
This is a cross sectional based
study that uses a questionnaire or
checklist or rapid appraisal methods
meant to measure phenomena
Classification Interview
Research
This is a cross sectional or
ethnographic based study intended
to bring out lived experiences and
meanings of what is spoken or done
Classification FGD Research
This is a cross sectional based
study intended to bring out lived
experiences and meanings of what
is spoken or done
Classification Participatory
Action Research
Action research methodology is a
participatory outcome based in that it
aims to improve the methods used in
settings.
Aims to improve the world (e.g
conditions of work and reduce inequities
through involving unions who, in turn,
take actions to improve their own
welfare) (Kothari, 2008, p.3).
It seeks to understand the world by
trying to change it, collaboratively and
following reflection.involves using
analysis of observation, listening and
stepping back from the situation
Action Research
Built into action research is
the proviso that, if as a
lecturer I am dissatisfied
with what is already going
on, I will have the
confidence and resolution to
attempt to change it. I will
not be content with the
status quo... (McNiff,
1988: p.50).
Action Research
A common-sense view of action research
provided by McNiff (2002) is that we:
review our current practice,
identify an aspect we want to improve,
imagine a way forward,
try it out, and
take stock of what happens.
. modify our plan in the light of what we
have found, and continue with the 'action',
monitor what we do,
evaluate the modified action,
[continue] until we are satisfied with
that aspect of our work. (p. 7)
Action Research
Action research is a generic term for
any process that follows a cycle in
which one improves practice by
systematically oscillating between
taking action in the field of practice,
and inquiring into it.
0ne plans, implements, describes,

and evaluates an improving change to
ones practice, learning more about
both the practice and action inquiry
in the process.
Action Research
The 4-phase representation of
the basic PAR inquiry cycle
Classification Operations
Research
This is an approach that uses
advanced analytical methods to
help make better decisions for a
system. (SD, OR and MS).
It seeks to best design and

operate a system, usually under
conditions requiring the allocation
of scarce resources (Financial,
technical and human resource)
Classification Implementation
research
This is an approach about the

study of methods to promote the
integration of research findings
and evidence into policy and
practice.
It seeks to understand the

behaviour of (HR) professionals
and other stakeholders (IHRS) as
a key variable in the sustainable
uptake, adoption, and
implementation of evidence-based
interventions.
Classification Applied
research
This is the opposite of basic
research which is empirical and
theoretical.
It is dedicated to the solution of

practical management economic,
social and political problems rather
than the further development of
empirical evidence, theories and
methods.
research
This is the opposite of basic
research which is empirical and
theoretical.
Applied research aims at finding

a solution for an immediate
problem facing a society, or an
industrial/business organisation
(Kothari, 2008:3)
The following are examples

for applied research:
research
The following are examples for applied
research:
A study into the ways of improving the

levels of customer retention for
Shoprite Checkers
An investigation into the ways of
improving employee motivation at Airtel
Development of strategies to introduce
change in BOZ supply-chain
management with the view on cost
reduction
confusion
By paradigm
Quantitative
Qualitative
Mixed or Multi methods
confusion
By paradigm in qualitative
Research.
Qualitative research is a
situated activity that locates
the observer in the world.
Phenomenology
Ethnography
Symbolic interactionism
confusion
By paradigm in qualitative
Research.
Qualitative research is a
situated activity that locates
the observer in the world
(Denzin & Lincoln, 2005, p.
3).
Research Topic
conceptualisation and
Operationalisation
Research ideas and research

problems originate from many
sources.
A key point is that you must
develop a questioning and
inquisitive approach to life
when you are trying to come up
with research ideas
Sources of a Research Topic
or problem
Personal experience
Literature : gaps
discrepancies, contradictions
From theories what they say
versus reality
Curiosity
Government reports and
advertisements
Funders
What comes first in developing
a proposal
Is it a research topic or
title?
Is it a research problem?
What comes first in developing
a proposal
Any one of the above

Essentials of a Research
Topic?
Interesting or motivating
Novel or common but
demonstrates some variation
Linked to an overarching question
or intriguing observation
Clear and precise or takes a
stand
Has key concepts (at least 5)
Essentials of a Quantitative
Research Topic?
It should have key variables
CORRELATES OF COMPANY
MERGERS AND PROFIT LEVELS :
THE ROLE OF STATE POLICY
It may have a context integrated
COMPANY MERGERS AND THREATS

TO SUSTAINABE PERFORMANCE : A
CASE OF ZAMBIA
Research Topic?
It may have a research
design component
a) A Metasynthesis of Financial
Intelligence led Project
Management
a) Financial Intelligence Systems and

Evidence based policy formulation :
a Comparative study design of a
Third and First world Country
Essentials of a Qualitative
Research Topic?
a) The construction of
masculinity and risk-taking
in Entrepreneurship among
Female Tomato Traders
Essentials of a Qualitative
Research Topic?
It may have a context (A
topic in form of a statement)
The construction of masculinity

and risk-taking in
Entrepreneurship among
Female Tomato Traders
in the Western Cape
Research Topic?
It may have a research design

component
An Ethnography of Gendered
Business Management among
Small Scale Tomato Traders
Research Topic?
It may have respondents
covered or a Paradigm
Strategic human resources,

innovation and entrepreneurship
fit: A mixed-methods case study
of Human Resources Mangers in
Two Quasi Institutions
Research Problem or Rationale
The starting point of all

scientific research is a
problem (Karl Popper; Lee,
2000; Creswell, 2005)
The problem is in essence a

research gap that must be
filled by the research.
The research problem is in

essence a research gap that
must be filled by the
research.
What then are the essentials

of a research problem?
There are 10 essential

features of a research
problem.
You can use 1 to 3 of the

following essential features
to describe your problem
1. What is the problem like in

terms of severity (Quantitative or
Qualitative).
Used if this is what needs to be

known? Or what is already
known.
Used to affirm that the problem
is real
2. Where in particular is the

problem (place or system)?
3. Who in particular is faced

with the problem?
4. What is the deviation like

from the reference or norm if
any (The purple line)?
5. What is the permissive

rate of the problem if any?
Used if this is what needs to

be known? Or
Used to affirm that the
problem is real
6. What has been done or

done poorly before to
address the problem?
7. What are the important

unresolved or unknown issues
if any in this field or related
to this problem?
8. What are the

contradictions in the data or
theories or practice on
research on the topic?
9a.What do theories or does the

theory say(s) or does not say
versus what you are seeing
happening or not happening in the
world?
9b. What theory could explain or

be used to understand what is
happening?
10. Contradictions in the

data practice, theory as
evidenced in the literature
Developing a rationale/Statement
of the Problem
Option 1 Use of Essentials
Select any one or two or three

essentials.
Add to them what you see or do
not see.
Support it when necessary with
citations.
Developing a rationale/Statement
of the Problem
From the time, the female condom was launched in
Malaysia, almost three years now, most married women
do not use it even in the event that other family
planning methods are inappropriate. There are so many
contradictory statements made by married women in
reference to female none use of the female condom.
These contradictions cover level of knowledge,
available indigenous methods women actually use, cost
of the condom, availability and the attitudes they have
towards condom use.
The Malaysia Society for Family Planning, marketing

manager believes that for women to access and use
the female condom there is need to identify correlates
and how women make choices pertaining to the
preferred mode of family planning. The absence of
empirical evidence may lead to accentuating production
costs and Malaysia Society for Family Planning company
may fold up.
Developing a rationale/Statement of
the Problem
Option 2 Use of Research
Questions
The love of Philosophy of
Science
Philosophers disagree.
As the saying goes, philosophy is

the field of unresolved
controversies on humanity and
the cosmos.
Broadly speaking, philosophers

have tried to understand the
relation between humanity and
the cosmos.
Science
Not only do philosophers disagree

among themselves, their answers to
the biggest questions compete with
answers provided by science and
religion.
The result is that human beings use

philosophical, scientific, or religious
insightsor a combination of
themto handle this quest for
understanding, leading to very
different kinds of worldviews.
Science
Philosophy is a process of reflecting

on and criticizing our most deeply
held conceptions and beliefs.
The word philosophy is derived from

the Greek words philia (love) and
sophia (wisdom) and means the love
of wisdom.
It despises ignorance be it on
humanity or the cosmos
Ignorance and Error
The Idiots and the Wise
The title of this slide is likely,

to offend some critics of mine in
this class. I am afraid of this.
But, what can I do when I am in
an educational institution?
Do I have to be a rightist and
swim to death or a leftist to
provoke things and survive?
I am just someone seeking
radical change in your mind?
Ignorance and Error
My people are destroyed (perish)

from lack of knowledge. "Because
you have rejected knowledge (Why),
I also reject you as my priests;
because you have ignored the law of
your God, I also will ignore your
children (Hosea 4:6).
The lips of the righteous nourish

many, but fools die for lack of
sense (Proverbs 10:21)
Ignorance and Error
For although Sources of

Knowledge is in order, and
Sources of Error would have
been in order too, the phrase
Sources of Ignorance is another
matter to think about.
Ignorance is something negative:
it is the refusal to know or
absence of knowledge.
It is a source of knowlegde
Ignorance and Error
But how on earth can the

absence of anything be a source
of knowledge?
Philosophical Assumptions
of Research
The answer is be ready to

internalize something new, do
not refuse it but do no ttake
it for granted.
Philosophical Assumptions
of Research
There are things we know that

we do not know.
Correct or from error
Theses things are out there in

the world we are all part of or
are inside the world of others
(THIS RELATES TO REALITY)
Philosophical Assumptions and
Research
But there are also unknown

ways of justifying by explaining
or understanding what is real.
Correct of out of error
This relates to theorizing.

Research
There are things that we do in the
manner we do not know.
These may be done correctly or

from error or from ignorance.
And each year we discover a few

more of those correct ways and
techniques
THESE RELATE TO
METHODOLOGY
Research
There are things we see and which
we do not see.
There are also positions we have

about what see and do not see.
THESE RELATE TO REALITY or

IDEAS
Research Burrell and
Morgans Paradigm
All social scientists approach

their subject via explicit or
implicit assumptions about
the nature of the social
world and the way in which it
may be investigated.
Morgans Paradigm
From slide 80, we have laid

the foundation of the schema
of assumptions.
There are assumptions of an

ontological nature -
assumptions which concern the
very essence of the phenomena
under investigation.
Morgans Paradigm
Social scientists, for example, are

faced with a basic ontological
question:
Whether the 'reality' to be

investigated is external to the
individual imposing itself on
individual consciousness from
without - or
Morgans Paradigm
The product of individual

consciousness; whether 'reality'
is of an 'objective nature, or
the product of individual
cognition; whether 'reality' is a
given 'out there' in the world, or
the product of one's mind.
Ontological Assumptions
Ontological' assumptions
concern the nature of the
phenomena being studied; what
the world is and what it
contains.
There are real hard things

out there in the world that are
amenable to all of us by our 5
senses
This about the Realist

Ontology and fits very well
with the inductive and
deductive logic
About soft things inside

the world others that is
amenable to them only or the
knower.
This is about the nominalist

ontology and fits very well
with the abductive logic
Epistemological Assumptions
Associated with this ontological

issue, is a second set of
assumptions of an epistemological
nature.
Epistemological' issues concern

the type of knowledge that is
possible and the means by which
it can be communicated.
These assumptions entail ideas,

for example, about what forms
of knowledge can be obtained
hard/real or soft/ideas.
Soft or hard knowledge is

predicated upon a view of the
nature of knowledge itself and
capable of being transmitted in
tangible form, or spiritual or
even transcendental
The epistemology which is linked to
the realist ontology is called the
positivist epistemology.
The positivist epistemology has two
variants and each is matched to a
corresponding logic
The logic induction is linked with
the realist epistemology.
The logic deduction is linked with
the rationalist epistemology.
The epistemology which is linked to
the nominalist ontology is called the
anti-positivist epistemology or
humanist epistemology.
The anti-positivist epistemology
takes knowledge to be personal,
concerned with personal experience
and insight, almost spiritual in
nature, and lacking laws.
Knowledge is not `revealed', as
implied by positivism, but
`manufactured' by specific actors.
So about what do we know ?-
Epistemology (Theory)
The anti-positivist epistemology has

two variants and both are matched
to a corresponding logic abduction
The epistemologies are

interpretivist and constructivist
epistemologies.
Human nature Assumptions
Associated with the ontological and

epistemological issues, is a third
set of assumptions of human
nature.
The `human nature' strand

concerns the implicit or explicit
model of humans and their
relationship with their environment.
Related to the realist ontology and

positivistic epistemology is the
deterministic view.
It has people responding in an almost
mechanistic way.
They are constrained by things
because things were there before
them.
Individual decision making is
unaffected by context and
consequences of the system in which it
takes place (Bowen , 1994: 88).
Related to the anti-positivist

ontology and positivistic
epistemology is the voluntarist
view.
It has people responding in a
free way.
Humans are agents and create
their environment by their
thoughts and actions.
Methodological Assumptions
Associated with the ontological

and epistemological and human
nature issues, is a fourth set
dealing with methodology.
Related to the realist ontology ,

positivistic epistemology and
determinist view use nomothetic
methodologies linked with
induction and deduction.
Researchers use experimental as

well as quasi experimental
methods (Nomothetic
methodology).
Nomothetic methodology uses
random sampling and many cases
to make generalizations (Hoepfl,
1997).
The method emphasise
measurement (Denzin and Lincoln,
1998).
A single determined reality is

measured from many units of
analysis.
Values are bracketed
Operationalisation determines the
forms of the data collection tool
and analysis
There is Pre coding of data
Related to the nominalist ontology ,
anti-positivistic epistemology and
voluntarist view, ideographic
methodologies linked with abduction
are used.
The methodology uses non-random
sampling and goes for one or a few
cases.
The principal concern is to
understand the way an individual
creates, modifies, and interprets
the world
Burrell and Morgans Axes of
Schema
Burrell and Morgans Axes of
Schema
Strands of Subjective Objective axis Multi axis
Theoretical Axis
Assumptions
Ontology Nominalism Realism Realism and

Nominalism
Epistemology Anti- Positivism Post Positivism

positivism
Human nature Voluntarism Determinism Structuration
(Free will)
Methodology Idiographic Nomothetic Multimethod
Research Strategy
Table of decisions
Research Strategy
RQ Type Inductive Deductive Retroductive Abductive Pragmatic
What XXX X X XXX XXX
Why X XXX XXX XXX XXX
How X X XXX XXX XXX

Research Design Matrix
How do I know that I will do
A quantitative study or
A qualitative or a qualitative
study
A mixed methods (intra
paradigmatic or cross
paradigmatic design?
The answer rests in

developing a research design
matrix.
What does it contain?

It contains Research
questions, objectives,
population and sampling, data
collection methods and
methods of analysis.
These are arranged logically
When all research questions are

linked to the nominalist ontology
(abductive strategy), the study
is qualitative.
When all research questions are

linked to the realist ontology
(inductive or and deductive
strategy, the study is
multimethod).
When one research question

among others is are linked
to the nominalist ontology,
the study is qualitative.
When all research questions
are linked to the realist
ontology, the study is
quantitative.
Thank you for listening

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Advanced Research Methodology

The term research has been

Much of what we have been

What are these

Number ONE: Searching for

What are these

Number TWO: At other times,

Seeks knowledge new or

Productive knowledge consists

We can have a marketing

They will not just decide as we

They will have critical

In essence the Japanese will

As such they will ask questions.

Let us look at the sample

What is the likelihood that the

SO we can also say that

The research questions related

Clifford Woody (Kothari 1988)

The definition presented above

Research is a controlled empirical

Taking Manion and Cohen (1987)

Social research may be uncontrolled

Slesinger and Stephension (1930)

Slesinger and Stephension (1930)

They forget that not all research

Research can be transferable and

According to Redman and Mory

Systematised does not mean a

While Redman and Mory (1923),

In a nut shell, research is a

to get a research degree

Research is classified in may

Cross- sectional research

True Experimental Designs

True Experimental Designs

True Experimental Designs

True Experimental Design

True Experimental Design

o Controls the timing of the

Pre-test and post-test case

0ne plans, implements, describes,

It seeks to best design and

This is an approach about the

It seeks to understand the

It is dedicated to the solution of

Applied research aims at finding

The following are examples

A study into the ways of improving the

Research ideas and research

Any one of the above

It may have a context integrated

COMPANY MERGERS AND THREATS

a) Financial Intelligence Systems and

The construction of masculinity

It may have a research design

Strategic human resources,

The starting point of all

The problem is in essence a

The research problem is in

What then are the essentials

There are 10 essential

You can use 1 to 3 of the