WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

SYSTEM

Mobile Radio Propagation:

Large-Scale Path Loss Model
Mobile Radio Propagation

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 Mobile Radio Propagation
Propagation study: provides prediction models for estimating the power
required to close a communications link and provide reliable
communications.
Modeling of radio channels is done in statistical fashion, measuring
propagation characteristics in a variety environments and then
developing a model based on the measured statistics for a particular
class of environments.
Wired channels are stationary and predictable, radio channels are
extremely random and have complex models.
Propagation Models

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Propagation Models

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 Propagation Models
Large-scale model:
predict the average received signal strength over large distance from

the transmitter.
variations due to path loss and shadowing

signal reduces when traveling farther

slow variation about mean caused by large obstructions

Small-scale model or fading model:

predict the variability of signal strength in short distance (within few

wavelengths).

rapid variation caused by local scatterers around the Rx
Propagation Models

Pr/Pt Path Loss + Shadowing

Path Loss + Shadowing + Multi-path fading

Path Loss only

The ratio of the received-to-transmit power in dB versus distance for the

combined effects of path loss, shadowing and multipath.

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 Propagation Models

The ratio of the received-to-transmit power in dB versus log-distance for the

combined effects of path loss, shadowing and multipath.
 Radio Propagation Models
Three components
Path-loss (long-term average)

Radio signal attenuation due to transmission over a certain

distance
Depend on the distance

Shadowing (large time-scale variation)

Signal attenuation due to penetration of buildings and

walls.
Log-normal distribution

Fading (small time-scale variation)

Due to multi-path transmission (reflection creates multiple

radio paths)
Rayleigh distribution, Ricean distribution

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 Statistical Fluctuations
Area-mean power
is determined by path loss
is an average over 100 m - 5 km
Local-mean power Relevant to
is caused by local 'shadowing' effects operator
has slow variations
is an average over 40 (few meters)
Instantaneous power Relevant to
fluctuations are caused by multipath reception manufacturer
depends on location and frequency
depends on time if antenna is in motion
has fast variations (fades occur about every half a wave length)

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Free Space Propagation Model
unobstructed line-of-sight (LOS) propagation
(e.g. satellite channels, microwave LOS radio
links)

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 Free Space Propagation Model
Isotropic antenna: power is distributed homogeneously over surface
area of a sphere.

The power density at the distance d from the

isotropic antenna must decrease as 1/4d2.
Pt
PD
4d 2
Pt Gt
The received power is Pr Ae
4d 2

2Gr
where Ae
4
is the antenna effective aperture or the
effective receiving surface area.

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 Free Space Propagation Model

In free space, the power density at distance d including

antenna Gain is given by:
Effective isotropic radiated power:
2
EIRP PG E the maximum radiated power
Pd t t
W/m 2
available from a transmitter in the
4 d 2 4 d 2 h
direction of maximum antenna gain,
h - intrinsic impedance of free space
mo
h= 120W 377W
eo
E
2
E Gr
2 2 2Gr
Pr Pd Ae Ae Ae
120 480 2 4
2

PR PT GT GR
4d
 Free Space Propagation Model

Substitute, =c/f, d in km and f in MHz

Received Power in dB,

PR (dB) PT (dB) GT (dB) GR (dB) - 32.44 20 log d 20 log f
PR (dB) PT (dB) GT (dB) GR (dB) - LFSPL (dB)
where Free Space Path Loss (LFSPL)

LFSPL 32.44 20 log d (km) 20 log f (MHz)

 Free Space Propagation Model

Gt Gr 2 1
Pr ( d ) 2
P
2 t (Valid if d2D2/- The far-field or Fraunhofer region)
( 4 ) L d
L : system loss factor not related to propagation,
e.g. loss due to transmission line, hardware etc. (L 1)
c speed of light

f frequency
Pt : transmit power
Pr : received signal power
Gt : gain of transmit antenna
Gr : gain of receive antenna
d : Tx-Rx distance
: signal wavelength
 Example 2.1

Find the far-field distance for an antenna with maximum dimension of

1 m and operating frequency of 900 MHz
 Example 2.2

If a transmitter produces 50 W of power, express the transmit

power in unit of (a) dBm, and (b) dBW.
If 50 W is applied to a unity gain antenna with a 900 MHz carrier
frequency, find the received power in dBm at a free space distance
of 100 m from the antenna.
What is Pr(10 km)? Assume unity gain for the receiver antenna.
 Example 2.3

Consider an indoor wireless LAN with fc = 900 MHz, cells of radius

100 m, and nondirectional antennas. Under the free-space path loss
model, what transmit power is required at the access point such that
all terminals within the cell receive a minimum power of 10 mW. How
does this change if the system frequency is 5 GHz?
(Nondirectional antennas, GrGt = 1)

Pt = 21.52 dBW
Pt = 36.42 dBW
 Basic Propagation Mechanism:
Reflection
Reflection
Happens when electro-magnetic wave meets a large object

Abrupt change in direction of a wave at an interface of large

objects (much larger than the wavelength) so that the wave

returns into the medium from which it originated.
- e.g., the surface of the Earth, buildings, walls, etc.
Effects: extra copies of signal with power attenuation, delay,
phase change
Reflection

Plane boundary
Medium 1

Medium 2
 Reflection: Specular vs Diffuse
Specular reflection: smooth surface
Angle of incidence = angle of reflection

Diffuse reflection (Scaterring): rough surface

Reflection in all directions because angle of incidence varies
over the surface due to its roughness
 Basic Propagation Mechanism:
Diffraction
Diffraction
Radio path between transmitter and receiver

obstructed by surface with sharp irregular edges

Waves bend and spread around the obstacle (Huygens principle)

Effects
Propagation behind obstructions

Receivers behind an obstruction can still receive signal, although with

less power, longer delay, and different phase

Known as shadowing
 Diffraction

Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter v

2(d1 d 2 ) 2d1d 2
vh a
d1d 2 (d1 d 2 )
 Refraction

When waves pass from a medium of one density to an other

medium with a different density
The angle of incidence, 1, and the angle of refraction, 2, are
related by Snells law.

n1sin 1 =n2 sin 2

When wave enters a region with a higher dielectric constant ( a

lower prop. velocity) it bends toward the normal.
Refraction

Snells Law
Radio Propagation Effects
Building

Direct Signal

hb Reflected Signal
Diffracted
Signal hm

d
Transmitter Receiver
 Fresnel Zone
d1 d2

Tx Rx

Fresnel Zone - a series of ellipsoid-shaped areas around the LOS

path.
 Unobstructed LOS path

A line-of-sight path is said to be unobstructed, when the first

Fresnel zone is free from obstacles or reflecting surfaces.
 Fresnel height clearance

a b d1 d 2 n / 2
d1
2
rn2 1/ 2

d 22 rn2 1/ 2
d1 d 2 n / 2
r 2 r 2
d1 1 2 d 2 1 2 d1 d 2 n / 2
n n
2d 2d
1 2

n d1 d 2
Radius of the n Fresnel zone: rn
th
d1 d 2
 Example 2.4

Consider a communication link operating at 15 GHz with the

transmitting and receiving antennas gain of 20 dB and 15 dB,
respectively. The transmitted power is 15 W and the distance
between transmitter and receiver is 12 km.
(i)Determine the received signal (in dBm) for the free space condition.

(ii)Repeat (i) if plane earth path loss exists and both transmitting and

receiving antenna height is 10m.

(iii)If there is a 20 meter tall building located at 5 km from the

transmitter, determine the minimum height of transmitting and

receiving antennas above ground level to ensure unobstructed LOS
conditions.

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 Plane Earth Path Loss (Ground Reflection
(2-ray) model)
Direct wave

ht

Reflected wave
hr

The model is used when a single ground reflection dominates the

multipath effect.
A good predictor for large-scale signal strength over distances of several
kilometers for mobile systems with tall towers (h > 50m).
 Plane Earth Path Loss Model)

For a flat earth and ht, hr << d and making use of the binomial
expansion 1+a2 1+0.5a2 for a<<1,
d d d 2 ht - hr d 1 ht - hr / d 2 d 1 0.5 ht - hr / d 2
2 2 2

d r d 2 ht - hr d 1 ht hr / d 2 d 1 0.5 ht hr / d 2
2 2 2

d r - d d 2ht hr / d and Df = b d r - d d 4 ht hr / d [rad ]
2
b , propagation constant

 Plane Earth Path Loss Model
The magnitudes of Ed and Er are almost
identical since d>>ht and approximately
equal to E1/d, where E1 is the direct
unattenuated field at 1 km.
The two waves have a phase lag Df+
because the reflection coefficient H=1|
180 adds radians. Thus we have:

E1 Dj E1 2 ht hr
E Er Ed 2 cos 2 sin d
d 2 d
 Plane Earth Path Loss Model
At large a distance [sin ], the received E-field:

E1 2ht hr
E2
d d
4Ae E1 2ht hr
Combining equations; G
r Pr Pd Ae E2
2 d d
2
Power received for flat earth reflection: E
Pd
ht hr
2
120
Pr PG
t t Gr 2 for d >> ht hr
d
In large distance (d >> ht hr ) the received power falls with d at
40 db/decade
Reflection from ground

Variation of field strength with distance in the presence of

reflection from a flat ground
 Example 2.5
A cellular radio system based on GSM 1800 has h t = 20 m
and hr = 2 m, Gt = 5 dB and Gr = 2 dB. The transmitter
(radio base station, RBS) radiated power, P t = 10 W. The
distance between RBS and mobile station (MS) is 2 km.
Determine the received power (dBm) using
(i)Free space propagation model.
(ii)Plane Earth Path propagation model
 Example 2.6

A mobile is located 5 km away from a base station and uses a

vertical /4 monopole antenna with a gain of 2.55 dB to receive
cellular radio signals. The E-field at 1 km from the transmitter is
measured to be 10-3 V/m. The carrier frequency used for this
system is 900 MHz.

(a) Find the length (m) and the effective aperture of the receiving
antenna (m2)
[8.33cm, 0.016m2]
(b) Find the received power at the mobile using the two ray ground
reflection model assuming the height of the transmitting antenna is
50 m and the receiving antenna is 1.5 m above ground.
[ER = 1.131 x 10-4 V/m, Pr = -122.7 dBW]
 Example 2.7

A cellular radio system based on GSM 1800 has h t = 30 m

and hr = 2 m, Gt = 5 dB and Gr = 2 dB. The RBS radiated
power, Pt = 10 W. The distance between RBS and MS is 2
km. Assume Plane Earth Path propagation exist, determine
the received power (dBm).

Pr = -49.48 dBm
 General Path Loss Models

Radio propagation models

Analytical or Deterministic models

Obtained from analyzing EM propagation

Example: free space, two-ray models, ray tracing technique etc

Empirical or Statistical models

Obtained from measurement data

Implicitly takes into consideration of many known/unknown

effects
Example Okumura, Hatta Models

Composite models: analytical + empirical

Applications of path loss models

Predict large scale coverage for mobile systems

Estimate and predict SNR or CNR (carrier to noise ratio)

Used for link-budget design

Log-Distance Path Loss Model
Log-distance generalizes path loss to account for other
environmental factors
n
d
PL(d )
d0
d
PL(dB) PL(d 0 ) 10n log
d0
Choose a close-in reference distance d0 in the far field.
Measure PL(d0) or calculate Free Space Path Loss.
Take measurements and derive n empirically.

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Path Loss Exponent
 Example 2.8

If measured power loss is 70 dB at d0 = 10m, and 110

dB at d = 100 m. What is path loss exponent, n? What
environment is mostly likely?
 Log-Normal Shadowing
Pr/Pt Path Loss + Shadowing
The log-normal distribution
describes the random
shadowing effects which occur Path Loss only
over a large number of
measurement locations which
have the same T-R separation,
but have different levels of
clutter on the propagation path.
d

d
PL(dB ) PL(d 0 ) 10n log X ,
d0
X ~ N (0, 2 )
Rec. ITU-R P.1057-2 44
 Calculation of Carrier to Noise Ratio (C/N)

Carrier to noise ratio

C/N = PT + GT L + GR (kTB + NF) dB

GT
PT Path loss

GR C/N dB

kTB
NF
 Example 2.9

For a given cellular radio system operating at 900 MHz the

RBS transmit 10 W into 10 dB gain antenna. The mobile
station is located 2 km away from RBS. If the medium loss
where the receiver is located is 10 dB, calculate the power
received at the receiver. Assume gain of receiving antenna
is 2 dB.
If the receiver has a 7 dB noise figure and IF bandwidth of
200 kHz calculate carrier to noise ratio.
CNR Measurement
dBm

dBm
 Noise Floor & Sensitivity

Sensitivity (W) = kTB * NF(linear) * minimum SNR required (linear)

Sensitivity (dB) = 10log10(kTB) + NF(dB) + minimum SNR required (dB)
Example parameters
Signal with 200KHz bandwidth at 290K
NF for amplifier is 1.2dB or 1.318 (linear)
Modulation scheme requires SNR of 15dB or 31.62 (linear)
Sensitivity = Thermal Noise + NF + Required SNR
Thermal Noise = kTB = (1.38 x 10-23 J/K) (290K)(200KHz)
= 8.006 x 10-16 W = -151dBW or -121dBm
Noise Floor = Thermal Noise + NF
Sensitivity (W) = (8.006 x 10-16 W )(1.318)(31.62) = 3.33 x 10-14 W
Sensitivity (dBm) = -121dBm + 1.2dB + 15dB = -104.8dBm
Sensitivity decreases when:
Bandwidth increases
Temperature increases
Amplifier introduces more noise
 Fade Margin

Fade Margin is the difference between the un-faded received signal level
and the receiver threshold sensitivity in dB
Fade margin is the extra signal power added to a given radio link to
ensure that the link will continue working if it suffers signal propagation
effects (such as fading)
The fade margin is the result of the path equation

Fade margin = Received Signal - Receiver Sensitivity

Fade Margin is insurance against system outages due to path fading

Rain attenuation is high for frequency above 10GHz

 ....Fade Margin

RSL

0 dB
Fade
Margin
-20 dB

Threshold Level
(Sensitivity) -40 dB

Time
Fade
Duration
 Outdoor Propagation Models

Predict the signal strength by considering also the terrain

profile, e.g., mountains, trees, buildings, obstacles.
This is more accurate than the statistical approach of log-normal
model, but has also more limited applications
Most of such models are obtained from systematic
interpretation of measurement data
Their application is limited to similar environments
Model classification
Computer based model: Longley-Rice model
Measurement model: Okumura model
Empirical model : Hata, COST 231 ,COST-WI, ERCEG, STM, ITU-
R P.1546 R
 Outdoor Propagation Model
Radio transmission in a mobile communications system often taken
place over irregular terrain.
The terrain profile of a particular area needs to be taken into account
for estimating the path loss.
The terrain profile may vary from a simple curved earth profile to a
highly mountainous profile.
The presence of trees, buildings and other obstacles also must be
taken into account.
A number of propagation models are available to predict path loss
over irregular terrain.
Most of these models are based on a systematic interpretation of
measurement data obtained in the service area.
 Computer-based Models
Longley-Rice model
Model point-to-point propagation

Frequency band 40MHz-100GHz

Use ray-tracing techniques

Two-ray ground reflection, knife edge refraction, scattering,

etc
Can use the terrain path profile if available

Can not add environment corrections, no multipath

considerations
 Measurement Model: Okumura
Model
Okumura model
Most widely used model in urban areas

Obtained by extensive measurements in and around Tokyo

Okumuras method is based on determining the free space path loss

between the Tx and the Rx and then adding and subtracting
numerous correction factors to account for the nature of the terrain,
the extent of urbanization and the height of the antennas.
Valid under:
Frequency band: 150-1920 MHz

T-R distance: 1-100 Km

BS antenna height: 30-1000 m

Quasi-smooth terrain (urban & suburban areas)

 Okumura Model
Okumura path loss model expression

L50 [dB] LF Amu ( f , d ) - G (ht ) - G (hr ) - GA

L50 : median of propagation path loss
LF : free space path loss
Amu ( f , d ) : median attenuation with frequency f and distance d
G (ht ) is the base station antenna height gain
factorfactor
G (hr ) is the mobile antenna gain factor
height gain factor
G (ht ) 20 log(ht /200): 1000 m > ht > 30 m
10 log( hr / 3), hr 3 m
G (hr )
20 log(hr / 3), 10 > hr > 3 m
GA : gain factor due to the type of environment
Median Attenuation (Amu)
Correction Factor, GA
Base station Antenna Height G(ht)
Mobile antenna Height G(hr)
 Example 2.10

Find the median path loss using Okumuras model for d

= 50 km, ht = 100 m, hr = 10 m in a suburban
environment. If the base station transmitter radiates
EIRP of 1 kW at a carrier frequency of 900 MHz, find
the power at the receiver in dBm (assume a unity gain
receiving antenna)
 Other Correction factors

Correction factor for rolling hilly (undulating) terrain K ter

Correction factor for sloping terrain Ksp
Correction factor for land sea Kls
Correction factor on Rolling Hilly
Terrain (Undulation) (Kter)
Correction factor on Sloping Terrain
(Ksp)
Correction Factor On Land Sea
Terrain (Kls)
 Example 2.11
Given these values
Base station antenna height (ht) = 200 m

Mobile antenna height (hr) = 3m

Frequency (f) = 500 MHz

Distance between antennas (d)
Average angle of slope m
Terrain undulation height Dh
Base station gain (Gt) and mobile (Gr)
= 10 km
= 10 miliradians
= 50m (near bottom of
undulation)
= 10 dB and 2dB

Power transmitted (Pt) = 50 dBm

Mobile is located in a suburban area. Find the predicted power received

using Okumura model.
 Hata Model

The Hata model is the empirical formulation of the graphical path loss
data provided by Okumura and is valid from 150 MHz to 1500 MHz.
The standard formula for median path loss in urban is given by

L50 urban dB 69.55 26.16 log f c - 13.82 log ht - a hr 44.9 - 6.55 log ht log d

fc is the frequency in MHz from 150 MHz to 1500 MHz

ht is the transmitter base station height in meters ranging from 30 m to
200 m
hr is the receiver antenna height in m ranging from 1 m to 10 m
d is the T-R distance in km
a(hr) correction factor for effective mobile antenna height which is the
 Hata Model

For a small to medium sized city, the mobile antenna correction factor
is given by

a hr 1.1log f c - 0.7 hr - 1.56 log f c - 0.8 dB

For large city it is given by

a hr 8.29 log 1.54hr - 1.1 dB for f c 300 MHz
2

a hr 3.2 log 11 .75hr - 4.97 dB for f c 300 MHz

2
 Hata Model

To obtain path loss in suburban area, the standard Hata formula is

modified to

L50 ( Suburban) dB L50 urban - 2

log f c / 28
2
- 5.4

For rural propagation, the path loss modified to

L50 (rural ) dB L50 urban - 4.78 log f c 18.33log f c - K

2

where K ranges from 35.94 (countryside) to 40.94 (desert)

 COST 231
The European Cooperative for Scientific and Technical Research
(COST) extended Hata model from 1.5GHz to 2GHz.
L50 F B log r - E G 1500MHz f c 2000MHz
F 46.3 33.9 log f c - 13.82 log hb B 44.9 - 6.B55log
44.h9b - 6.55 log hb

E 3.2 log11 .75hm - 4.97 metropolitan centers, fc300MHz

2

E 8.29 log1.54hm - 1.1

2
metropolitan centers, fc<300MHz

E 1.1 log f c - 0.7 hm - 1.56 log f c - 0.8 medium city and suburban

0dB Medium sized city and suburban areas

G
3dB metropolitan centers

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 COST-WI
COST-Walfisch-Ikegami-Model [11] considers more data to describe
the character of the urban environment,
heights of buildings, hroof
widths of roads w,
building separation b and
road orientation with respect to the direct radio path
Differentiate LOS and non-LOS situations.

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 Erceg Model

Hata-Okumura model was found that it is not suitable for shorter base station
heights (<30m), higher frequency (>1.5GHz).
Erceg model used the experimental data collected by AT&T Wireless Services
across United States in 95 existing macro cells operating at 1.9GHz.
Proposed for broadband fixed wireless, multichannel multipoint distribution
services (MMDS)
PL A 10 a - bhb c / hb log(d / d 0 )

10 x log(d / d 0 ) ym yz ; d d 0

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 ITU-R P.1546 R
point-to-area predictions for terrestrial services in the frequency range
30 MHz to 3000 MHz at distances from 1 to 1,000 km

interpolation and extrapolation from empirically derived field-strength

curves as functions of distance, antenna height, frequency and
percentage time.

corrections to account for terrain clearance and terminal clutter

obstructions.

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Standard Propagation Model
The Forsk Atoll SPM model is a derivative of the Hata formula.
Suitable for predication in the 150MHz~3500MHz band over long distance
(1Km<d<20Km)

LSPM K1 K 2 log (d ) K 3 log (H Txeff ) K 4 DiffractionLoss

K 5 log (d ) log (H Txeff ) K 6 H Rxeff K clutter f (clutter)

K1: Constant offset (dB), K2 : Multiplying factor for log(d)

d: Distance between the receiver and the transmitter (m)
K3: Multiplying factor for log(HTxeff)
HTxeff : Effective height of the transmitter antenna(m)
K4: Multiplying factor for diffraction calculation, K4 has to be a positive number
DiffractionLoss: Losses due to diffraction over an obstructed path(dB)
K5: Multiplying factor for log(d)log(HTxeff) K6:Multiplying factor for HRxeff
HRxeff: Mobile antenna height (m) KClutter: Multiplying factor for f(clutter)
f(clutter) : Average of weighted losses due to clutter 73
Other Corrections to Propagation
Models

Vegetation Rec. ITU-R P833

Rain - Rec. ITU-R P.838 and P.839
Snow Isotherm level (level at which water freezes) if path passes
though this level this correction is applied
Fog and Clouds Rec. ITU-R P.840
Gas Rec. ITU-R P.676
Sea Wave height - (applies an effective clutter height depending on
wind strength)
Reflections