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What is respiration?
Respiration is the process by which organisms extract the
energy stored in complex molecules and use it to generate
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

In this way they obtain energy to fuel their metabolic pathways.

ATP provides the ATP

immediate source of
energy for biological
processes such as active
transport, movement and
metabolism.

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Types of respiration
During aerobic respiration, a respiratory substrate, e.g.
glucose, is split in the presence of oxygen to release carbon
dioxide and water. A large number of ATP molecules are
produced, releasing the energy from the glucose.

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 36 ATP

In anaerobic respiration, glucose is converted (in the absence

of oxygen) to either lactate or ethanol. The ATP yield is low.

C6H12O6 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2 + 2 ATP

ethanol

C6H12O6 2 C3H6O3 + 2 ATP

lactate
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Where does respiration occur?
Respiration occurs in all living cells. In eukaryotes the early
stages of respiration occur in the cytoplasm. The later
stages of respiration are restricted to the mitochondria.

Mitochondria contain highly folded inner membranes that

hold key respiratory proteins (including the enzyme that
makes ATP) over a large surface area.

Mitochondria provide an isolated

environment to maintain optimum
conditions for respiration.

Mitochondria have their own DNA and

ribosomes, so can manufacture their
own respiratory enzymes.

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The structure of the mitochondria

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An overview of respiration

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Adenosine triphosphate
ATP contains a sugar
adenine
(ribose), a base
(adenine) and three
phosphate groups.
ribose
phosphates

When ATP is hydrolysed to form ADP and inorganic phosphate,

30.5 kJ of energy are released.

+ + + 30.5 kJ
inorganic
ATP H 2O ADP phosphate

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Why ATP?
Biological systems transfer the energy in glucose to ATP
because unlike glucose

glucose ATP

ATP releases its energy instantly in a single reaction.

The hydrolysis of ATP releases a small amount of

energy, ideal for fuelling reactions in the body.

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Phosphorylation of ADP
The addition of an inorganic phosphate group (Pi)
to a molecule like ADP is called phosphorylation.
ADP is phosphorylated during respiration.

Two types of phosphorylation occur during respiration:

1. Substrate-level: glycolysis & Krebs cycle

A single reaction involving the direct transfer of a phosphate
group from a donor molecule to ADP.

2. Oxidative: electron transport chain

A series of oxidation reactions that produce sufficient energy
to form ATP from ADP and phosphate.

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Coenzymes
Coenzymes are molecules that
bind with a specific enzyme or
substrate, helping to catalyze a
reaction. Breaking the bonds
between coenzyme and product
after a reaction is crucial,
substrate
otherwise coenzyme concentration
will drop, limiting respiratory rate. enzyme
coenzyme
Three major coenzymes are used in respiration:
NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)
CoA (coenzyme A)
FAD (flavine adenine dinucleotide)

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NAD, FAD and coenzyme A
NAD can accept a hydrogen molecule,
forming reduced NAD (NADH).
nicotinamide
NAD+ + 2H NADH + H+
adenine

This is used to regenerate ADP in the ribose

electron transport chain (ETC).
NAD
Coenzyme A aids the transition between glycolysis and the
Krebs cycle, by converting pyruvate to acetyl coenzyme A.

FAD, like NAD, can accept hydrogen to form reduced FAD

(FADH2).

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The molecules of respiration

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The first stage of respiration: glycolysis

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The stages of glycolysis

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The fate of pyruvate

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Krebs cycle

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Counting carbons

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Keeping track of the products
For each molecule of glucose, glycolysis produces:

For each molecule of glucose, the link reaction produces:

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Keeping track of the products
For each molecule of glucose, Krebs cycle generates:

4 produced by decarboxylation

6 produced by redox reactions

2 produced by redox reactions

2 produced by substrate-level phosphorylation

The NADH and FADH2 contain the potential energy originally

locked in glucose. This energy is now transferred to ATP by
oxidative phosphorylation in the electron transport chain.

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The electron transport chain

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Understanding the ETC

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How much ATP is produced?

Process ATP in ATP produced Net ATP out

glycolysis 2 4 2
link reaction 0 0 0
Krebs cycle 0 2 (per glucose) 2 (per glucose)
Via the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis, each
NADH can yield 2.5 ATP and each FADH2 1.5 ATP.
From one molecule of glucose, glycolysis yields 2 NADH, the
link reaction yields 2 NADH and the Krebs cycle yields 6
NADH and 2 FADH2.
10 2.5 = 25 ATP from NADH 2 1.5 = 3 ATP from FADH2
total = 2 + 2 + 25 + 3
= 32 ATP overall
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Efficiency of aerobic respiration
The theoretical yield of 32 ATPs for each glucose molecule is
rarely achieved. In fact respiration is only about 32% efficient.

Some protons leak across the mitochondrial membrane,

so not all are available to generate ATP via chemiosmosis.

Some ATP is used up moving

pyruvate into the mitochondria
by active transport.

Some ATP is used up moving hydrogen from reduced NAD

made during glycolysis into the mitochondria.

Some energy is lost as heat. This heat helps to maintain a

suitable body temperature for enzyme-controlled reactions.

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Adaptations of mitochondria

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Evidence for chemiosmosis
The theory of chemiosmosis matrix
states that the energy in a
chemical gradient established
by electron movement is used
to generate ATP.
Evidence includes:
The proton gradient across the inner membrane can be
measured as it corresponds to a pH gradient.
Isolated ATP synthase enzymes can produce ATP using a
proton gradient even if no electron transport is occurring.
Chemicals that block the ETC inhibit the formation of a
proton gradient and prevent ATP synthesis.

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Respiratory rate
The respiratory rate is the
rate at which an organism
converts glucose to CO2 and
water. It can be calculated by
measuring an organisms rate
of oxygen consumption.

Studies on simple animals

often use a respirometer.

Respirometers measure the change in gas volume in a

closed system. Any change is due to the respiratory activity of
the study organisms. Potassium hydroxide or soda lime is
used to absorb the carbon dioxide produced, meaning any
changes in volume are due to oxygen consumption.

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The respirometer

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Respirometer experiments

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Respiratory substrates
Other substances as well as glucose can be respired. Different
respiratory substrates release different amounts of energy.

Respiratory substrate Mean energy value (kJ g-1)

carbohydrate 15.8
lipid 39.4
protein 17.0

The difference in the relative energy values of these respiratory

substrates is due to the amount of hydrogen atoms present in
each one. If more hydrogen atoms are available to reduce
coenzymes, more energy can subsequently be generated in
the electron transport chain.

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Respiratory quotient
Respiratory quotient (RQ) is the ratio of the volume of
carbon dioxide produced to the volume of oxygen used in the
same period of time.
volume of CO2 given out
RQ =
volume of O2 taken in
RQ gives an indication of the respiratory substrate being
respired and whether respiration is aerobic or anaerobic.
Type of respiration Substrate RQ
anaerobic glucose >1
aerobic carbohydrate 1.0
protein approx. 0.9
lipid approx. 0.7
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Respiration calculations

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Glossary

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Whats the keyword?

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Multiple-choice quiz

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