2006 1

:
A 1411
TEL) 2049-4092
hankim@konkuk.ac.kr

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Why is it an important subject in Environmental
Engineering?

Basic media (air, water, groundwater, sludges, organic solvents-NAPLs)

(macro/micro transport-advection, dispersion, diffusion)


- ,
- , , , ,
- , ,
- , , , ,
,
 What is Fluids?
, ,

Differences from the solids

Solids fixed distances btw. the component molecules rigid body
(lattice structure) and resistant to shear stress
Fluids flexible (varied) mol.-mol. distance and structure no defined
shape of body and continuously deformed by shear stress (
.)

Differences bwt. gases and liquids

Gases large and varied mol.-mol. distance, subject to
compression/expansion varied density (compressible fluids)
Liquids relatively constant mol.-mol. distance, almost no
compression/expansion no density changes (incompressible fluids)
 Fluids vs. Solids
Fluids
Gas or liquid
A substance can deform
continuously under the action
of a shear stress
Irregular or relatively constant
spacing btw. component
molecules
Free or weakly limited
movement of molecules
Various shapes depending on
containers
Shear stress time rate of
shear strain
Solids
Solid
A substance resists a shear
stress in a static condition
Fixed spacing btw. component
molecules
Restricted movement of
molecules lattice structured
Own shapes
Shear stress shear strain
Differences btw. Ideal and Non-ideal (real) fluids
Real resistance (shear stress) generated in real fluids due to their
viscosity (viscous fluids)
Ideal no viscous effects (inviscid fluid- ), incompressible,
useful for the theoretical analysis of fluids

(jellies, , polymeric
solutions, paraffin)
 What is Fluid Mechanics?
Science that describes physical actions and effects given by the forces
applied to the fluids in motion or no motion.

Classification of Fluid Mechanics

Upon target fluids

1. Hydrodynamics () incompressible fluids
2. Gas dynamics () compressible fluids
3. Aerodynamics () gases (air) flowing over aircrafts, rockets,
etc.

Upon forces applied

1. Fluid statics () fluids in no motion, no shear stress but
pressure
2. Fluid kinematics () fluid elements in motion
3. Fluid dynamics () fluids in motion
 Flu id s as a Con tin u u m

(continuum ) -
.
The num ber of m olecules in the air at 1 atm and 0 oC = ~ 10 7 /m m 3
: , Not fluid
m olecules

Rationale (e.g., gases)

Very short m ol.-m ol. distance (m olecular m ean free path ~
10 -5 cm )
Tim e scale for the m ol.-m ol. collisions << one for the system on which fluids work
(e.g., forces)

force force

time time
 Mass, force, weight
Mass - a property of physical objects that measures the amount of
matter they contain, the property of a body that causes it to have
weight in a gravitational field. Constant anywhere in space. (g, kg, slug,
lbm)

Force a physical property that gives the movement of a static

object or changes in velocity or direction of an object in motion (F =
ma, N, kgf, dyne, lbf)

Weight - the vertical force exerted by a mass as a result of gravity

(W = mg)
 Class quiz
10kg 8.9kgf.
?

100kgf 1/5
?

What is the weight of a pound mass (lbm) on the earths surface, where the
acceleration due to gravity is 32.2 ft/s 2, and on the moons surface, where
the acceleration is 5.31 ft/s 2?
 Basic fluid properties
Mass density (, , ) = m/vol. kg/m 3, lbm(or slug)/ft3

Specific weight (, , g ) = W/vol. = g, N/m 3, lbf/ft3

Specific volume (, , Vs) = 1/ , 1/ g ()

Specific gravity (, S, dimensionless) =

for liquids, g fluid fluid for gases, g gas gas M gas

g water water g air air M air

where, gw : g of water at 4oC and ga: g of air at 1atm and 0 oC.

Ideal gas law

pV = nR uT where, R u: universal gas constant (8.31 kJ/kmol-K, 1545 ft-lbf/lbmol-R)
In fluid mechanics, p= RT where, R: gas constant ( ~J/kg-K, ft-lbf/slug-oR)
Class quiz)
Density of air at standard sea-level pressure (atmospheric pressure)
and 0, 4, and 20 oC?

Specific gravity and density of Helium?

Specific gravity of mercury?

101.3 KPa, 100oC (CO2) , , .

Specific heat (, c): , kJ/kg-oC
(cv), (cp), (specific heat ratio, k) = cp / cv

Specific internal energy ( , u): J/kg

Elasticity () compressibility ()
Bulk modulus of elasticity (, Ev) ~N/m 2
= -dP/(dV/V) = dP/(d /)

Class quiz) 1000kgf/cm 2 0.4m 3

, 2000kgf/cm 2 0.396m 3
?
 Viscosity ()
(shear stress)

Newtons law (shear stress, )

(dV/dy,shear rate)

dV : dynamic/absolute viscosity (/ )
dy (=/): kinematic viscosity ()
 Viscosity of gases vs. liquids

Driving forces for viscosity molecular cohesive force (), molecular momentum exchange
( )

In gasses primarily controlled by molecular momentum exchange viscosity with temperature

In liquids by molecular cohesive force viscosity with temperature

For gases Sutherland equation

3
T T0 S
2

0 T0 T S

where, 0: dynamic viscosity at T0 S: Sutherland

constant

For liquids
= Ceb/T
Where, C, b: empirical constants
Class quiz)
Aboard (1m 1m, 25N weight) slides down an inclined ramp (slope=20 o) with a velocity of 2
cm/s. The board is separated from the ramp by a thin film of oil with a viscosity of
0.05Ns/m 2. Calculate the spacing between the board and ramp. (Neglect edge effects)
 Newtonian vs. Non-Newtonian fluids

Newtonian fluids shear stress is linearly related to shear rate (, , )

Non-Newtonian fluids - shear stress is NOT linearly related to shear rate

Bingham ,
Shear-thinning (psedoplastic) ,
(),
Shear-thickening (dilatent) , ,

 Surface tension
When a liquid is in contact with different phases (e.g., gas, solids), liquid molecules at the
surface exert tension on adjacent surface due to their greater attraction btw. the
molecules at the surface than those below the surface (cohesive force, >
adhesive force, ). interfacial tension (surface tension, : liquid-gas contact)

Defined as tension force per unit length - of water at room temp.= 0.073 N/m

1/temp

The surface tension is typically ignored in most cases, but it must be taken into account in
very small scale flow (gas/liquid droplets present, small scale models, etc.)

How to measure? capillary rise technique, ring tensiometer (Du Nouy ring method, etc.)
 Capillary rise technique
Capillary tube (d < 1 cm)
Typically,=0o for water and clean glass

Vertical component of the surface tension, F, z = d

cos

Weight of water risen

W = g(h)(d2/4)

At equilibrium, F, z = W
h = 4 cos / gd

Contact angle ()
determines wetting/non-wetting phases
~ f (cohesive, adhesive forces)

<90o air >90o air

mercury
water

glass glass
adhesive btw. liquid/solid > cohesive btw. liquid molecules adhesive btw. liquid/solid < cohesive btw. liquid molecules
 Vapor pressure (Pv, )
The pressure at which a liquid boils

Pv temp

Ex) water boils at 100oC (212oF) and 1 atm (14.7 psia) and also boils at
10oC (50 oF) and 0.178 psia.

Important for cavitation ()

 Fluid statics ()
Deals with the fluids in no motion.
Forces applied on the fluids
1. Surface forces () (), ()

2. Body forces () (e.g., ), ,

In fluid statics, just consider pressure and gravity (no shear stress!)

Pressure? dF/dA
Gravity? W=gV

Pressure at a point in a static fluid acts

with the same magnitude in all directions.

Pn=Px=Py=Pz
 Pascal law
Apressure change produced at one point in a closed system is transmitted throughout the
entire system. (p 1 = p 2 = p 3 = . = p n)

3.1) If a force of 100N were

exerted on the handle of this hydraulic
jack, what load, F2, can the jack
support? Neglect lifter weight.
 Abs. vs. Gage pressure (, )

0 pressure (vacuum) is the absolute pressure.

atmospheric pressure at sea level = 101 kN/m 2 (kPa), 14.6 psia.
Gage pressure = abs. pressure + atmospheric pressure
Negative gage pressure vacuum pressure
 Pressure variation with elevation

dp
g
dz

Pressures are constant along a horizontal path, but vary along a vertical path (gravity
direction).

If no density change (g constant-incompressibie fluids),

P + gz = const. (piezometric pressure)
P/g + z = const. (piezometric head)
Class quiz)

Ex 3.3) Ex 3.4)
 Compressible fluids ()
Assumption ideal gas
= p/RT
, g = pg/RT
Pressure variation = f (z, temp)

In troposphere ()
temp with elevation
T = T0 - (z-z0)

In stratosphere ()
constant temp with elevation

Pressure gage
1. Manometer

Differential
manometer (
)

2. Bourden-tube gage
Class quiz)
50 oF .
1 piezometric pressure piezometric head ?
 Hydrostatic forces ()
Forces given by the hydrostatic pressure (, ) applied on a submerged plate in
a no-motion fluid

Note)
The first moment of area ( 1 ) =

ydA y A
A
The second moment of area ( 2 )=

y dA I y A
2 2

How much is the magnitude of hydrostatic force? Fhydrostatic p A

I
Where does the hydrostatic force act on a submerged plate? ycp y
yA
Class quiz)

The end of pipe is closed by an elliptical shape

gate (54 m) and the gate is fixed by a
hinge at its top. How much of normal force
is required to open the gate? Neglect the
weight of the gate.
Class quiz)

Find the magnitude of the hydrostatic force acting on one side of the submerged vertical
plate given below and also find the location of the center of pressure.

Integrating pressure force along the curved surface
Easier way use free-body diagram () and consider force equilibrium in
vertical/horizontal directions

Fh FAC
Fv FBC W
F Fh Fv
2 2

Fv
tan 1
Fh
Class quiz)

Find the magnitude and line of action of the

hydrostatic force acting on surfaceAB
(the thickness of the circularAB is 1 m).
 Buoyant force ()
Aresultant hydrostatic force that acts on the surfaces of a body submerged or floating in
fluids

1) Submerged body
FB = Fup - Fdown = g(Vb+ V a) - gV
a = gV b = gV D
where, V
a: vol.ABCEF ,
V b: vol. of the body,
V D: displaced volume ()

2) Floating body
0
FB = Fup - Fdown = gVD (Fdown = P atoms.A= 0)

Archimedes principle
1.
.
2.
.
Apparent weight ( ) of a body in a fluid

From the equilibrium of forces,

T T + FB = W

Apparent weight, T = W FB
W FB (g body g fluid )Vbody
Hydrometer ()

Specific weight ( ), specific gravity

()
 Class quiz)

60N 1 N
? ( .)

1.03 10% .
?

20g 6mm ,
6cm . ?
Class quiz)
The woodblock (505010 mm) has a specific gravity S1 = 0.3 and the volume of the metal
part is 6600 mm 3. Mass of the metal part and the tension T of the cord?

Free-body diagram