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PETROLEUM PRODUCTION

ENGINEERING-II
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Horizontal & Multilateral Wells
BACKGROUND:-
Multilateral drilling & completion methods have been practiced
since the mid 1940s.
The first applications were developed for mining, where multiple
bores were drilled from the parent bore.
For years, hydraulic fracturing provided large areal exposure b/w
the well & the reservoir.
However, with the significant advancements in horizontal drilling
technology in the mid 1980s & its evolution into multilateral
drilling in the mid 1990s, the performance of a vertical well with a
hydraulic fracture can now be readily surpassed by a properly
oriented horizontal or multilateral well in an areally anisotropic
reservoir.
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Furthermore, horizontal wells provide better results in
reservoirs with large gas caps or water aquifers.
INTRODUCTION:-
To move hydrocarbons into vertical wellbores that may not be
well positioned, the industry is now moving to the use of
horizontal, multilateral & multibranch wells that move the
wellbore closer to the hydrocarbons in place.
Multilateral well systems allow multiple producing wellbores to
be drilled radially from a single section of a parent wellbore.
A major difference b/w this method & conventional sidetracking
is that, in multilateral the parent wellbore produce while in
sidetracking the lateral extension produce hydrocarbons.

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Because only a single vertical wellbore is required,
multilateral well designs require less drilling time, often
have fewer equipment & material requirements & increase
hydrocarbon production.
Typical multilateral applications include:
Improving productivity from thin reservoirs.
Improving recovery in tight, low permeability zones.
Preventing water or gas coning.

Controlling sand production through lower draw down at the


sand face.
Improving water flood & enhanced oil recovery efficiency.
Intersecting vertical fractures.

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DESIGN CONSIDERATION:-
When designed properly, multilateral wells can provide
considerably higher productivity & increased reservoir
recovery at relatively low incremental cost.
Before deciding to drill such a well, engineers must carefully
evaluate the expected well performance, operational &
economic risks, possible production scenarios, & most
importantly, the well bore management & maintenance of
the individual drain holes with in the overall reservoir.
With advancements in coiled-tubing technology, short
radius, lateral well branches can be drilled.

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However, selecting the right candidates on the basis of the
geological flow units, their configuration & production &
completion technologies is critical.
CANDIDATE SELECTION:-
Selecting the most beneficial well system for a given reservoir
is a challenge.
For reservoir engineering, the degree of communication
among the drainage areas of individual branches is probably
the most substantial issue.
When completion is selected, appropriate wellbore
management should be assessed, first according to the
reservoir type & planned production scenario.
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The remaining options should then be ranked in order
of economics & operational & economic risks.
A frequent motivation for multilateral or horizontal
wells is the lack of available drilling slots in offshore
drilling pads.
Following figure shows a typical configuration where few
or no drilling slots are available.

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Thin bed reservoirs are good candidates for horizontal
wells.
Layered formations, consisting of several thin beds
separated by impermeable layers, can be exploited as
shown in fig:

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MULTILATERAL TECHNOLOGY:-
Because the drilling, casing/tubing design, completion
equipment re-entry processes, & abandonment requirements
are interdependent, multilateral wells require more planning
than conventional vertical or horizontal wells.
DIRECTIONAL DRILLING:-
COMPLETION TECHNOLOGY:-
For the best results to be achieved from a multilateral well,
compatible completion tools must be properly selected.
Many technologies & processes affect the design & installation of
the final completion suite of tools.

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Prior planning must be made if lateral wellbore re-entry will be
required.
Since most lateral wells will be in a horizontal configuration, job

designers must ensure compatibility with coiled tubing or


jointed pipe operations.
Subsea well completions represent another area of special

challenge where intervention plans should be avoided because


of the major costs of mobilizing a subsea rig or work platform.
Multilateral well completions are driven by the following

criteria:
Lateral wellbore rock properties & stability.

Workover/re-entry options & methods.

Abandonment requirements.

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MULTILATERAL WELL DESIGNS:-
Three major categories of multilateral well designs are
now available:
Openhole Multilateral Wells
Limited Isolation Multilateral Wells
Complete Multilateral wells

OPENHOLE MULTILATERAL WELLS:-


Although openhole multilateral well designs are relatively
simple, detailed reservoir information must be available, &
target selection must be performed & coordinated with the
directional drilling plans.

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APPLICATIONS:-
Openhole multilaterals can improve the areal drainage of a

reservoir.
When directional drilling tools are used, the direction &

inclination of the drill bit is steered & monitored so that


drainage holes are placed quickly & accurately.
Current directional drilling techniques are accurate to about

3ft at distances of up to 6000ft of horizontal displacement.


Most openhole applications have involved relatively short

horizontal sections, rarely exceeding 1200ft of horizontal


displacement.

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Because lateral bore casing installation is not a consideration
in these wells, so short radius drilling techniques can be used
to reach the target zones.
RESERVOIR CONSIDERATION:-
Stable, hard rock formations are appropriate for this type of

well design.
Many of these formations have steep decline rates in which

high initial production is followed by rapid decline within a


few months.
The drainage objective for such a formation is to achieve the

highest amount of initial production & to drain the reservoir


as rapidly as possible, until either water conning or natural rate
decline occurs.

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For openholecompletions, stable, non sloughing,
heterogeneous hard rock reservoirs should be targeted.
Otherwise, wellbore collapse & loss of production could result.

INSTALLATION CONSIDERATION:-
Completion equipment installation & design requirements are

minimal with this type of well program.


Typically, a single string of production tubing is anchored to a

packer that is set near the base of the parent casing.


As required, landing nipples for plugging & safety valves can

also be added.

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LIMITED ISOLATION MULTILATERAL SYSTEM:-
APPLICATION:-
As the reservoir requirements for zonal isolation & re-entry access
become pre-requisite for a successful long term project, this system is
available to address these needs.
Following figure shows a system that isolates the flow entering the
primary bore from the flow entering the lateral bore.

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This type of installation is appropriate if one of the formation is
likely to produce unwanted water or gas during the life of the
well.
This undesirable production can then be shut off from the
producing bore.
Expected pressure changes between the lateral-bore reservoir
targets can also be managed through this on/off arrangement.
INSTALLATION CONSIDERATION:-
As with openhole designs, this limited-isolation system does
not allow casing to be set in the lateral bore & mechanically
reconnected to the parent bore.

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A stable, non sloughing, hard-rock formation is the best candidate
for this well design.
Single or dual strings of production tubing could also be installed
to commingle or segregate production as required.
COMPLETE MULTILATERAL SYSTEM:-
APPLICATION:-
A complete multilateral system provides two to five laterals from
one new or existing wellbore.
Applications for this type of multilateral system are similar to the
limited isolation design, but a complete multilateral system allows
project designs for deep water or subsea environments.
When a complete multilateral system is used, the lateral wellbore is
cased back to the primary bore exit, & the liner casing string is
mechanically connected to the primary bore casing.

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ADVANTAGES OF MULTILATERAL & MULTIBRANCH
WELLS:-
Higher productivity
Possibility of draining relatively thin layers
Decreased water & gas conning
Increased exposure to natural fracture & fault system
Better sweep efficiency

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DISADVANTAGES OF MULTILATERAL & MULTIBRANCH
WELLS:-
Higher initial cost
Increased sensitivity to heterogeneities(both stress & permeability)
Complicated drilling, completion & production technologies
Complicated & expensive stimulation
Often slower & less effective cleanup
Difficult selection of appropriate candidates.
If damage occurs during drilling, stimulation will be more difficult
as well as more costly than for vertical wells.

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FUTURE MULTILATERAL APPLICATIONS:-
Following are some of the most likely future multilateral related
developments.
INSTRUMENTED WELLBORES:-
Real time temperature & pressure survey tools will be installed in each
lateral wellbore.
Down hole flow meters, developed from surface based technology, will
record & report the flow rates at multiple locations within the well.
Equipment will be available that can monitor & report casing & tubing
corrosion.

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INTERACTIVE RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT:-
Interactive Reservoir Management(IRM) refers to tools & processes that
allow the well engineer to observe real time events in each of the well
laterals.
When well conditions require modification, downhole tools can be
remotely actuated for optimal well production.
Processes such as subsurface fluid & gas separation will be possible & are
under development.

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PREDICTION METHODS OF WELL
PRODUCTION FROM RESERVOIRS OR
RESERVOIR ESTIMATION
Hydrocarbon reserve or reserve is defined as
the future economically recoverable
hydrocarbons from a reservoir.
Ultimate recovery is given by:
UR = OHCIP x Er
Where,
UR = ultimate recovery
OHCIP = original hydrocarbon in place
Er= recovery efficiency

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Now, considering prior production,
Reserve = UR Qp
Where,
Qp = Cumulative production
Reserves are classified as proved, probable & possible, depending upon
the technological & economic certainty with which recovery can be
made.
Commonly used reservoir performance analysis & reservoir estimation
techniques are:
Volumetric
Material Balance
Decline Curves
Mathematical Simulation

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DECLINE CURVES:-
Since the graphical representation of production data eventually shows
production curves decrease with time, the curves are known as decline curves.
When sufficient production data are available & production is declining, the
past production curves of individual wells can be extended to indicate future
performance.
Factors that influence the production rates & consequently decline curves
throughout the producing life are:
Methods of production

Work over

Well treatment

Pipeline disruption

Weather

Market conditions

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FORMATION DAMAGE
Formation damage is a term referring to the disability of the
permeability of petroleum bearing formations by adverse
processes.
It is an undesirable operation & economic problem that can
occur during the various phases of oil & gas recovery including
production, drilling, hydraulic fracturing & work over
operation.
In petroleum industry, it is said that Formation damage is an
expensive headache to the oil & gas industry.
Formation damage is caused by physico-chemical, chemical,
biological & thermal interaction of porous formation & fluids &
mechanical deformation of formation under stress.
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Porosity & permeability variation by:
Fines migration & deposition
Mud filtrate & fines invasion
Rock compression
Scales
Acidizing

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Potential Sources Of Formation Damage
During History Of Well
Drilling
Cementing(pH change, Scale formation)
Perforation
Completion
Workover
Gravel Packing
Production
Stimulation
Fluid injection

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Common Formation Damage Mechanisms
Fluid-fluid incompatibility(emulsion generation etc)
Rock-fluid incompatibility(clay swelling etc)
Fines invasion & migration(particles etc)
Phase trapping & blocking(water entrapment in gas
reservoirs)
Biological activity

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Two categories of Formation Damage:
Mechanical Damage:-
Occurs when particular solids, emulsion, asphaltenes & scales
physically plug the pore spaces.
Injecting or producing oil or gas at high rates.

Chemical Damage:-
Injection of low salinity water into a sandstone reservoir could result
in clay swelling & fines migration.
Injection of incompatible water(contains high sulphate content) &

the formation water contains high concentration of calcium,


strontium or barium ions.
As a result, sulphate salts of these cations will precipitate in the

formation & may cause severe formation damage.


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Factors Affecting Formation Damage
i. Particle & Pore Size Distribution
Particle larger in size than pore entries.
Smaller size particles can bridge at pore throat.
ii. Salt Concentration
Concentration of electrolytes in aqueous fluid can effect on clay particles.
Example of injection of fresh water.
iii. Flow Rate
Fine particles loosely attached to pore surface can move at high velocity.
iv. Pore Pressure
Change in pore pressure will effect pore structure & pore volume & will
result in permeability alteration.
Example: Due to production w.r.t time or fluid injection

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v. Temperature
Changes in temperature can effect production.
vi. Organic Deposition
Paraffin's, asphaltenes can occur on the surface of formation
pores.
As a result, reduce flow efficiency & block flow paths completely.
vii. Wettability
Measure of the preferential tendency of immiscible fluids to
spread over a solid surface.
Plays an important role in formation damage occurring in
multiphase system.

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Formation Damage Mechanism
1. Particles Plugging Of Pore Spaces
Due to deposition of solid particles on formation face.
Plugging may occur in a perforation tunnel, naturally or created fracture.
Example is the formation of mud cake formed on the wellbore wall during
drilling operation.
2. Fines Migration
Formation fines are composed of silica, feldspar, mica, calcite, dolomite,
siderite & chloride.
These particles may come from external sources or may originate in the
porous medium itself.
Fines in the porous medium may be mobilized by change in a chemical
composition of H20.
Fluids introduced(external sources) into the formation may contain solid
particles, insoluble materials, bacteria etc.

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3. Clay Swelling
Clay is generic term, described as Hydrous Aluminum Silicate (<
0.005 mm).
All oil producing sandstones contain some clays.
Carbonate rock may also contain clays.
Sand that contain 1-5% clay is Clean sand.
Sand that contain >5-20% clay is Dirty sand.
Occurrence Of Clay Swelling
When clay is exposed to aqueous solution having brine concentration,
swelling clay particles can absorb water & expand to enlarge particle size, as
a result reduce permeability.
Swelling clay are Smectite & mixed layer clays.

Kaolinites & Illites are non-swelling clays.

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Smectite
A group of clay minerals formed by 3 properties.
Very high cations exchange capacity.

Sensitive in fresh water & swells.

It can swell over 600% of their original volume.

Use of KCl, NH4Cl or oil base fluids reduce swelling tendencies.

HCl/HF acid will remove damage caused by Smectite.

Kaolinites
A clay mineral formed by two sheets of Aluminum Silicate.
It has density of 2.62 g/cm3.

It has a very low cations capacity.

Absorb water only along the edges of clay.

It will not react with HCl, but will react with HF.

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Illite
Type of clay mineral, similar to micas.
Formed by layered silicates of aluminum, iron & magnesium
with potassium.
Density is 2.78 g/cm3.

Swell in fresh water causing it to break off from mineral


grains.
Swelling can be prevented by injecting salt water in to the
formation.
Illite is usually associated with smectite.
Removed by HCl/HF.

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Effects Of Clays On Formation Damage
Clays in sedimentary rocks may have two different origins.
1. Detrital Clays
It originated during the formation of rocks.
Detrital particles formed by the weathering & erosion of pre-existing
rocks & were transported & deposited.
Mechanical damage is an example of Detrital Clays.
2. Authigenic Clays
These clays are loosely attached to pore surface & of interest from the
point of chemical formation damage.
Authigenic clay is a clay mineral that have precipitated out of
subsurface water.
It can bridge pore throats as a result to decrease the permeability of
the rock.
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4. Chemical Precipitation
Chemical species(group of animals or plants) in injection fluids react with
connate fluids & form precipitates.
The injection fluids can dissolve minerals in the formation.
The dissolved mineral can migrate with the injection fluids & precipitate
deeper in the formation.
Precipitates can collect pore throats & block the flow paths, resulting in
reducing permeability.
Precipitation of solids from brine or crude oil in the formation can cause
severe formation damage.
5. Fluid Damage
Caused by fluids due to change in viscosity or change in relative permeability.
This damage may be considered as temporary because fluids are mobile.

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Emulsion
Caused by mechanical mixing of oil & water.
It breaks one of the phases into small droplets dispersed in the other phases.

The formation of water in oil emulsions in the reservoir rock around the wellbore

can cause damage because of emulsion.


Relative Permeability
An increase in the water saturation around the wellbore, resulting in a reduction
permeability of oil.
Above effect is called Water Block.

It can occur when aqueous fluids are introduced into the formation.

Change In Wettability
Chemicals can alter the wettability of the formation, changing the relative
characteristics of the formation entirely.
Example:- If a water-wet formation is changed to oil-wet around the wellbore, the

relative permeability of oil may be greatly reduced in the near wellbore region.

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6. Mechanical Damage
Result from the collapse of weak formation material
around the wellbore.
7. Biological Damage
Injection water may contain the bacteria, that can plug
the formation.
Anaerobic bacteria may grow rapidly in the formation,
as a result blocking the pore spaces.

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Skin Factor
Quantify Formation Damage.
Quantify pressure difference between the ideal &
actual Pwf.
Pwf Pwf represents an additional pressure loss due to
formation damage.
Skin factor gives an indication of the character of flow
near the wellbore.
+ve skin indicates damage or restriction to flow.
-ve skin indicates stimulation or reduced restriction to
flow.
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Mathematically
Pwf Pwf = Ps =
Pressure due to ideal, radial flow is.
PR = PR - Pwf =
Combining eq: 1& 2
Pwf = PR -
where,
re =

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WELL STIMULATION
Most oil & gas wells are stimulated, either upon
completion or later in their production life.
The primary goal of well stimulation is to increase the
productivity of a well by removing damage in the vicinity
of the wellbore.
Productivity is improved by two methods:
Removing formation damage & increasing permeability in
the vicinity of the wellbore(Acidizing).
Creating a conductive fracture extending from the wellbore
into the reservoir, to increase the effective wellbore
radius(Fracturing).
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Hydraulic Fracturing
INTRODUCTION:-
Hydraulic fracturing is a well-stimulation technique & it was introduced
in 1948.
It is most suitable to wells in low- and moderate-permeability reservoirs
that do not provide commercial production rates even though formation
damages are removed by acidizing treatments.
Fracturing is a process that uses high pressure pumps to develop fluid
pressure at the bottom of a well sufficient to actually break(crack) the
formation.
This makes it possible to introduce proppant materials such as sand or
other small particles of material into the newly created fractures propped
open when the pressure is relieved.
This process increases the flow of reservoir fluids into the wellbore as
shown in fig:

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Hydraulic fracturing jobs are carried out at well sites
using heavy equipment including truck-mounted
pumps, blenders, fluid tanks, and proppant tanks.
PROCEDURE:-
Following fig:1 shows a simplified equipment in hydraulic
fracturing treatments.
A hydraulic fracturing job is divided into two stages: the pad
stage and the slurry stage as shown in fig:2.

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In the pad stage, fracturing fluid only is injected into the well to break
down the formation and create a pad.
The pad is created because the fracturing fluid injection rate is higher
than the flow rate at which the fluid can escape into the formation.
After the pad grows to a desirable size, the slurry stage is started.
During the slurry stage, the fracturing fluid is mixed with
sand/proppant in a blender and the mixture is injected into the
pad/fracture.
After filling the fracture with sand/proppant, the fracturing job is over
and the pump is shut down.
To prop the fracture, the sand/proppant should have a compressive
strength that is high enough to resist the stress from the formation.

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The overburden stress is carried by both the rock grains and the fluid within the pore space between the grains.
The contact stress between grains is called effective stress as shown in fig:

Effective stress is given by:


'v = v pp
Where,
'v = effective vertical stress, psi
= Biots poro-elastic constant, approximately 0.7
pp = pore pressure, psi

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Productivity Of Fractured Wells:-
Hydraulically created fractures gather fluids from reservoir
matrix & provide channels for the fluid to flow into wellbores.
Apparently, the productivity of fractured wells depends on two
steps:
Receiving fluids from formation.

Transporting the received fluid to the wellbore.

Usually one of the steps is a limiting step that controls the well
production rate.
The efficiency of the first step depends on fracture
dimension(Length & height).
The efficiency of second step depends on fracture permeability.

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Hydraulic Fracturing Design:-
Hydraulic fracturing designs are performed on the basis of parametric studies to

maximize Net Present Values(NPVs) of the fractured wells.


A hydraulic fracturing design should follow the following procedure:
Select a fracturing fluid.

Select a proppant.

Determine the maximum allowable treatment pressure.

Select treatment size(Fracture Length & proppant concentration).

Post-Frac evaluation.

Selection Of Fracturing Fluid:-


Fracturing fluid plays a vital role in hydraulic fracture treatment because it controls

the efficiencies of carrying proppant and filling in the fracture pad.


Fluid loss is a major fracture design variable characterized by a fluid-loss coefficient

C and a spurt-loss coefficient S .


L p

Spurt loss occurs only for wall-building fluids and only until the filter cake is

established.

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Fluid loss into the formation is a more steady process than spurt loss
because it occurs after the filter cake is developed.
Excessive fluid loss prevents fracture propagation because of insufficient

fluid volume accumulation in the fracture.


Therefore, a fracture fluid with the lowest possible value of fluid-loss (leak-

off) coefficient C should be selected.


L

The second major variable is fluid viscosity.

It affects transporting, suspending, and deposition of proppant.

The viscosity should be controlled in a range suitable for the treatment.

A fluid viscosity being too high can result in excessive injection pressure

during the treatment.


However, other considerations may also be major for particular cases.

They are compatibility with reservoir fluids and rock, compatibility with

operating pressure and temperature and safety and environmental


concerns.

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Selecting A Proppant:-
Proppant must be selected on the basis of in situ stress conditions.

Major concerns are compressive strength and the effect of stress on proppant

permeability.
In general, bigger proppant yields better permeability but proppant size must be

checked against proppant admittance criteria through the perforations and inside the
fracture.
Maximum Treatment Pressure:-
The maximum treatment pressure is expected to occur when the formation is broken

down.
The expected surface pressure can be calculated by:

psi = pbd - ph + pf
Where,

psi = surface injection pressure, psia


pbd = formation breakdown pressure, psia
ph = hydrostatic pressure drop, psia
pf = frictional pressure drop, psia

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Limiting effects are imposed by technical and economical
factors such as available pumping rate and costs of fluid and
proppant.
Post-Frac Evaluation:-
Post-frac evaluation can be performed by pressure matching,

pressure transient data analysis, and other techniques such as


pumping radioactive materials and running tracer logs,
running production logging tools, and conducting back-
pressure and performing Nodal analysis.

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Matrix acidizing
INTRODUCTION:-
Matrix acidizing is also called Acid Matrix Treatment.
It is a technique to stimulate wells for improving well inflow performance.
In the treatment, acid solution is injected into the formation to dissolve
some of the minerals to recover permeability of sandstones (removing
skin) or increase permeability of carbonates near the wellbore.
ACID-ROCK INTERACTION:-
Minerals that are present in sandstone pores include montmorillonite
(bentonite), kaolinite, calcite, dolomite, siderite, quartz, albite (sodium
feldspar), orthoclase, and others.
These minerals can be either from invasion of external fluid during
drilling, cementing, and well completion or from host materials that exist
in the naturally occurring rock formations.

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The most commonly used acids for dissolving these
minerals are hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hydrofluoric
acid (HF).
Primary Chemical Reactions:-
Silicate minerals such as clays and feldspars in sandstone
pores are normally removed using mixtures of HF and HCl,
whereas carbonate minerals are usually attacked with HCl.
The chemical reactions are summarized as follows:

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The amount of acid required to dissolve a given amount of
mineral is determined by the stoichiometry of the chemical
reaction.
For example, the simple reaction b/w HCl & CaCO 3 requires 2

mol of HCl to dissolve 1 mol of CaCO3.


Reaction Kinetics:-
The acidmineral reaction takes place slowly in the rock
matrix being acidized.
Generally, the reaction rate is affected by the characteristics of
mineral, properties of acid, reservoir temperature, and rates of
acid transport to the mineral surface.

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Sand stone acidizing
The purpose of sandstone acidizing is to remove the damage to the
sandstone near the wellbore that occurred during drilling and well
completion processes.
The acid treatment is only necessary when it is sure that formation
damage is significant to affect well productivity.
A major formation damage is usually indicated by a large positive
skin factor derived from pressure transient test analysis.
Selection Of Acid:-
The acid type and acid concentration in acid solution used in acidizing
is selected on the basis of minerals in the formation and field
experience.
For sandstones, the typical treatments usually consist of a mixture of 3
wt% HF and 12 wt% HCl, preceded by a 15 wt% HCl preflush.

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Acid Volume Requirement:-
The acid volume should be high enough to remove near wellbore
formation damage and low enough to reduce cost of treatment.
Selection of an optimum acid volume is complicated by the
competing effects.
The volume of acid needed depends strongly on the depth of the
damaged zone, which is known.
Also, the acid will never be distributed equally to all parts of the
damaged formation.
The efficiency of acid treatment and, therefore, acid volume also
depends on acid injection rate.
To ensure that an adequate amount of acid contacts most of the
damaged formation, a larger amount of acid is necessary.
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The surface pressure is related to the bottom-hole
flowing pressure by:
psi = pwf - ph + pf
Where,
psi = surface injection pressure, psia
pwf = flowing bottom hole pressure, psia
ph = hydrostatic pressure drop, psia
pf = frictional pressure drop, psia

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Carbonate acidizing
The purpose of carbonate acidizing is not to remove
the damage to the formation near the wellbore, but to
create wormholes through which oil or gas will flow
after stimulation.
Following figure shows wormholes created by acid
dissolution of limestone in a laboratory.

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Carbonate acidizing is a more difficult process to predict than
sandstone acidizing because the physics is much more complex,
because the surface reaction rates are very high.
The structure of the wormholes depends on many factors including
flow geometry, injection rate & reaction kinetics.
Acidizing design relies on mathematical models calibrated by
laboratory data.
Selection Of Acid:-
HCl is the most widely used acid for carbonate matrix acidizing.
Weak acids are suggested for perforating fluid and perforation cleanup,
and strong acids are recommended for other treatments.
Following table lists recommended acid type and strength for carbonate
acidizing.

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ARTIFICIAL LIFT METHODS
When reservoir pressure is insufficient to sustain the flow of oil to
the surface at adequate rates, natural flow must be aided by
Artificial Lift.
There are Two basic forms of Artificial Lift:
Continuous Gas Lift
Bottom Hole Pumping
Both methods supplement the natural drive energy of the
reservoir.
Gas lift is accomplished by injecting gas into the lower part of the
production tubing.
While down hole pumping is accomplished by operating a pump at
the bottom of the well.
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The rate-pressure relationship of a well is used for
investigating the need to introduce artificial lift,
selecting most suitable lift system & determining its
size & capacity.
Artificial lift is divided into three systems:
Positive Displacement Pumps
Dynamic Displacement Pumps
Gas Lift

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Design Considerations:-
Capital cost
Operating cost
Down hole equipment
Reliability
Efficiency
Salvage value
Flexibility
Operating problems

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Normal Operating Conditions:-
Casing size limits
Depth limits
Noise level
Prime mover flexibility

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Artificial Lift Consideration:-
Corrosive/scale handling ability
Crooked/deviated holes
Gas handling ability
Offshore application
Paraffin-handling capability
Solid/sand handling capability
Temperature limitations
High-viscosity handling

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N/A

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N/A

N/A
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Economics Of Artificial Lift:-
The features, benefit & limitations of one artificial lift
method are relative to those of other methods under
consideration.
Each method should be evaluated from the following
criteria:
Initial capital cost
Monthly operating expense
Equipment life

Number of wells to be lifted


Expected producing life of wells

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SUCKER ROD PUMP
The system uses a vertical positive displacement pump
consisting of a hollow plunger with a valve.
It is run into the tubing screwed onto the end of rod
string.
The system is actuated from the surface by a motor
that drives a walking beam.

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Working Of Sucker Rod
At the bottom of the tubing is the down-hole pump.
This pump has two ball check valves: a stationary valve
at bottom called the standing valve, and a valve on the
piston connected to the bottom of the sucker rods that
travels up and down as the rods reciprocate, known as
the traveling valve.
Reservoir fluid enters from the formation into the
bottom of the borehole through perforations.

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When the rods at the pump end are traveling up, the
traveling valve is closed and the standing valve is open.
Consequently, the pump barrel fills with the fluid from
the formation as the traveling piston lifts the previous
contents of the barrel upwards.
When the rods begin pushing down, the traveling
valve opens and the standing valve closes.

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The traveling valve drops through the fluid in the barrel
(which had been sucked in during the upstroke).
The piston then reaches the end of its stroke and begins its
path upwards again, repeating the process.
Often, gas is produced through the same perforations as
the oil.
But this can be problematic if gas enters the pump,
because it can result in gas locking, where insufficient
pressure builds up in the pump barrel to open the valves
(due to compression of the gas) and little or nothing is
pumped.
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To solve this, the inlet for the pump can be placed
below the perforations.
As the gas-laden fluid enters the well bore through the
perforations, the gas bubbles up the annulus while the
liquid moves down to the standing valve inlet.
Once at the surface, the gas is collected through piping
connected to the annulus.
Down hole working of Sucker Rod can be shown as:

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PROGRESSIVE CAVITY PUMP
The progressive cavity pump (PCP) is a positive
displacement pump, using an eccentrically rotating
single-helical rotor, turning inside a stator.
The rotor is usually constructed of a high-strength
steel rod.
Figure of PCP is shown as:

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Progressive cavity pumping systems can be used for
lifting heavy oils.
Solids and free gas production causes minimal
problems.
They can be installed in deviated and horizontal wells.
The PCP reduces overall operating costs by increasing
operating efficiency while reducing energy
requirements.
The major disadvantages of PCPs include short
operating life (25 years) and high cost.
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In this type of pump, the fluid is lifted by the
movement of rotor.
So at the points where rotor touches the stator, the
surfaces are generally traveling transversely, so small
areas of sliding contact occur.
These areas need to be lubricated by the fluid being
pumped (Hydrodynamic lubrication).
This can mean that more torque is required for
starting, and if allowed to operate without fluid, called
'run dry', rapid deterioration of the stator can result.
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WORKING OF PCP

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ELECTRICAL SUBMERSIBLE PUMP
Electric Submersible Pumping (ESP) Systems
incorporate an electric motor and centrifugal pump
unit run on a production string and connected back to
the surface control mechanism and transformer via an
electric power cable.
The downhole components are suspended from the
production tubing above the wells' perforations.
The motor is located on the bottom of the work string.

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Above the motor is the seal section, the intake or gas
separator, and the pump.
As the fluid comes into the well it must pass by the
motor and into the pump.
This fluid flow past the motor aids in the cooling of
the motor.
The fluid then enters the intake and is taken into the
pump.
Each stage (impeller/diffuser combination) adds
pressure or head to the fluid at a given rate.
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The fluid will build up enough pressure as it reaches
the top of the pump to lift it to the surface and into the
separator or flow line.

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JET PUMP
A type of pump that works by utilizing the venturi effect
which uses the momentum of one fluid to move another.
Jet pumps are relatively inefficient but can tolerate a wide
range of operating conditions, including easily handling
sand-laden or abrasive fluids.
Traditionally in oil wells the jet pump would be set above
the packer.
Power fluid is pumped down the tubing string.
Power fluid and produced fluid returns up the annulus.

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The jet pump has no moving part.
Power fluid (water, crude oil or diluent) at high
pressure is supplied to the nozzle which converts the
pressure head into a high velocity jet reducing the
pressure in the throat and so entraining the
production fluid.
The two fluids mix together in the throat, recover
pressure in the diffuser and proceed upwards.

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Casing

Jet Pump Housing

Packer

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Advantages:-
No moving parts
Suitable for low quality production fluids
Suitable for gassy wells
Resists to high temperatures
Disadvantages:-
High suction pressure (to avoid cavitation)
Possible emulsion former

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GAS LIFT METHOD
Gas lift is an artificial lift technique that utilizes
relatively high pressure gas injected from the surface
into the wellbore.
The gas is injected from the Tubing-Casing annulus
through a valve placed at a depth in the well above the
perforations.

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A complete gas-lift system includes a source of gas; a
surface injection system, including all related piping,
compressors, control valves, etc.
The gas source may be gas produced from adjoining wells
that is compressed and re-injected after separation.
In most cases a secondary source of gas is required to
supply any shortfall in the gas from the separator.
There are two principal methods of gas lift:
Continuous
Intermittent

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Continuous Gas Lift Method
For continuous gas lift, a self-regulating operating
valve injects the appropriate amount of gas at the
desirable tubing pressure at the injection depth.
Other valves may be placed below the injection point
and may be put into service during the life of the well
as the reservoir pressure declines.
In continuous gas lift, gas is injected continuously
through a single, self regulating operating valve, and a
series of unloading valves is generally included for
initiating production.

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The depth of the operating valve, the injection gas
pressure, gas-liquid ratio (GLR), and volume of gas to
be injected can be calculated from well conditions
such as desired rate, natural GLR, reservoir pressure,
temperature gradient, and fluid composition.

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Intermittent Gas Lift Method
For intermittent gas lift, either a single injection point
or multiple injection points can be used.
In a single-point injection, a liquid slug is allowed to
build up in the tubing above the bottom valve.
The valve is opened, and gas displaces the liquid slug
upward.
The valve remains open until the liquid slug reaches
the surface, and then the valve closes.

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The valve reopens when another liquid slug has formed,
and the process is repeated.
In multi-point intermittent injection, these valves inject
gas below the slug to assist in lifting the liquids to surface.
In intermittent lift, the well is produced and is periodically
shut in until sufficient pressure builds in the tubing to lift
liquids and to produce the well for a brief time before
shutting the well in again.
The same down hole equipment that was used for
continuous lift may be adapted to perform equally well
intermittently.
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Advantages
The gas-lift technique has a number of advantages
over mechanical-lift techniques.
It is the only lift method that can lift an already gassy
well.
It is not hindered by sand production.
It can be used in deviated wells.
It does not require pump systems that suffer reduced
effectiveness from heat, chemicals and gas.
Gas lift is also often the simplest method of lift for high-
volume lift, especially in remote areas.

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