Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Examples
Chlorine: atomic number = 17, so 17 electrons to be placed in
orbitals: 1s22s22p63s23p5
add these to get total no. of
electrons
1st 2nd 3rd
shell shell shell
Li Be B C N O F Ne
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
lithium beryllium boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon
He
H
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Electron affinities
Another useful measure of electron attraction by atoms is
called the electron affinity; this is the energy change when a
mole of electrons is added to a mole of atoms in the gas phase:
X(g) + e- X-(g) E = electron affinity
He
H
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Metalloid ( kim)
Metal atoms: More non-metallic
Relatively large atoms
with weak attraction Non-metal atoms:
for electrons relatively small atoms
with strong attraction
More metallic for electrons
6
Periodic trends in atomic structure
Words
Words
7
Metallic bonding
Metallic bonding:
how metal atoms bond together
8
Phases or states of matter
9
Phases or states of matter
SOLIDS
The particles in a solid are arranged in an ordered lattice.
The kinetic energy of the particles is low and they vibrate about
their lattice position. As the solid is heated the particles move more
and the lattice expands becoming more disordered.
The potential energy of the particles is also low because they are
close together.
10
Phases or states of matter
Solids may be bonded in different ways:
In metals
The lattice energy depends on the charge on the metallic ions, the
size of the ions, and the type of lattice.
In ionic solids
The lattice energy depends on the charge on the ions, the size of the
ions, and the type of lattice.
In covalently bonded macromolecular solids
The bond energy depends on the size of the atoms and the
arrangement of the lattice.
In covalently bonded molecular solids
The lattice energy depends on the forces between the molecules.
These can be hydrogen bonds in compounds where hydrogen is
bonded to nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine (e.g. H2O); dipole forces
where there is charge separation (e.g. CO2); van der Waals forces
which depend on the number of electrons (e.g. noble gases). 11
Metallic bonding
12
Phases or states of matter LIQUIDS
1. The particles in a liquid are fairly well ordered over a short
distance, but there is no long range order.
2. The particles have more kinetic energy than in the solid state
and it is this movement of the particles that disrupts the
arrangement of the lattice.
http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/phaseeqia/idealpd.ht
ml
Phases or states of matter
GASES
1. The particles in a gas move rapidly and randomly.
2. The kinetic energy of the particles is very high and all order
has been lost.
3. The particles are far apart and so also have high potential
energy.
4. Gases are either covalently bonded molecular substances with
weak intermolecular forces (small molecules with few
electrons) or atomic substances like the noble gases.
To simplify the study of gases we assume that the particles:
are moving randomly
have no volume
Real gases approach ideal behavior when the pressure is very low
(the particles are far apart and do not attract each other ) and/or
when the temperature is very high (the particles are moving very
fast and not near each other).
Words
condense; freeze
disrupt: cause disorder in (sth).
Raoults law
ideal gas; ideal liquid
randomly: random
postulate v n
conversely
17
Phase equilibria
Phase equilibria:
The behavior of substances as they change state
PHASE DIAGRAM
18
Phase equilibria
19
Periodic patterns
Periodic patterns
PATTERN 1. METAL/NON-METAL TRENDS
Metals Non- metals
physical conduct physical insulate
ductile/malleable brittle
chemical basic oxides chemical acidic oxides
reducing agents oxidizing agents
form cations form anions
20
Periodic patterns PATTERN 2. S, D, AND P BLOCKS
S block physical
soft, low m.p. metals; colorless compounds
chemical
alkaline in water; strong reducing agents
valency same as group number
unreactive cations: little hydrolysis
d block physical hard, high m.p. metal; colored compounds
chemical unreactive in water; variable valency
form complex ions; cations hydrolyzed
p block metals physical softer and lower m.p. than d block
chemical two valencies except Al
p block non-metals physical solids, liquids or gases depending on
structure
chemical variable valence
21
Periodic patterns
PATTERN 3. DOWN THE GROUPS
Similar properties within a group related to the outer shell
electrons
Trends and differences going down a group related to the
number of inner electrons and hence the size of the atoms.
The atoms of the elements at the top of a group are often so small
that they have unusual properties.
22
Periodic patterns
23
Periodic patterns Words
24
ACIDS AND BASES
Key theory: Brnsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases:
Acid-base reactions are ones in which protons are given and taken.
- Acids are proton donors
- Bases are proton acceptors
- Acids may be cations, neutral molecules, or anions, while bases may
be anions or neutral molecules.
25
Acids and bases
Conjugate pairs
Every acid has what is called a conjugate base. This is particle left
when the acid has given away its proton. In the same way, every base
has a conjugate acid, which is the particle made when the proton has
arrived. So the conjugate base of HCl is Cl- and the conjugate acid of
ammonia is NH4+.
Familiar conjugate pairs
Acid Base
H2O OH-
H3O+ H2O
H2SO4 HSO4-
HSO4- SO42-
CH3COOH CH3COO-
HNO3 NO3-
H2CO3 HCO3-
HCO3- CO32-
26
NH4+ NH3
Acids and bases
To be a base, a substance
To be able to give protons, must have a lone pair which
an acid must have a can become a sigma pair as it
hydrogen atom which can accepts a proton
be lost: e.g. :NH3
e.g. HCl; H2SO4
27
Acids and bases
Ampholytes
The water in the first reaction above is acting as a base. One of its
lone pairs accepts a proton.
In the second reaction the water is being an acid, giving one of its
protons to ammonia.
Substances like water, with hydrogens that can be lost and lone
pairs that can be protonated, are called ampholytes. They can be
either acids or bases depending on what they react with.
The last, third proton should be detached from the HPO42- anion
(third stage) which has a still greater dispersion of the
negative charge than H2PO4-. This is why the third stage goes on
by only 0.001%.
Ampholytes
The amphoteric electrolytes of hydroxides reveal some general
laws:
The type of ionization of hydroxides having the general formula
MOH depends on the comparative strength and polarity of the M
O and O H bonds and can proceed in two ways:
M-OH
NaOH; KOH
32
Acids and bases
Words
Ampholyte
33
Strength of acids
Strength of acids
The strength of an acid (how well it protonates) is measured by the
equilibrium constant for the reaction:
HA + H2O H3O+ + A-
34
Strength of acids
In the same way, it is possible
For an acid HA: to write a Kb expression for a
base and a Kw expression for
water. Compare the three:
36
Strength of acids
38
Buffer solution
39
Buffer solution
Sodium ethanoate
Ethanoic acid Buffer solution
40
Buffer solution
Addition of a base
Addition of acid
Any base that is added reacts with the
Adding acid, that is more
hydroxonium ions, H3O+, and uses them
hydroxonium ions, H3O+, increases
up. This means that there is no back
the rate of the back reaction as
reaction in the equilibrium, but the
ethanoate ions collide more often
forward reaction goes on with more
with acid ions until most of the
ethanoic acid molecules protonating water
extra ones are removed. Once
and replacing most of the hydroxonium
again the pH hardly changes.
ions that were removed by the base. so the
pH hardly changes at all.
41
Buffer solution
USES OF BUFFERS
42
Buffer solution
BUFFER CALCULATIONS
Ka = [H3O+] [A-]/[HA]
Ka/[H3O+] = [A-]/[HA]
Redox reactions
Reduction and oxidation reactions involve the transfer or loss and
gain of electrons.
Oxidation
Oxidation is defined as the loss of electrons
Reduction
Reduction is defined as the gain of electrons
Remember OIL RIG!
Oxidation is loss: reduction is gain
46
ELECTRON CONTROL
The nucleus of every atom is surrounded by electrons.
48
Oxidation numbers
Oxidation numbers
The electron density around an atom in a substance is shown by
oxidation numbers. These numbers indicate the electron density
around an atom compared to its situation in the pure element.
49
Oxidation numbers
50
Oxidation numbers
51
Oxidation numbers
52
Oxidation numbers
Words
53
Recognizing reduction and oxidation
REDUCTION
If the oxidation number of an atom has become more negative,
control over electrons has been gained. The substance containing that
atom has been reduced.
OXIDATION
If the oxidation number of an atom has become more positive, control
over electrons has been lost. The substance containing that atom has
been oxidized.
54
Recognizing reduction and oxidation
55
Recognizing reduction and oxidation
56
Recognizing reduction and oxidation
The substance being reduced gains electrons from the reducing agent.
As the reducing agent loses these electrons it is being oxidized.
57
Recognizing reduction and oxidation
Oxidizing and reducing agents are tested for in a similar way by using
a reducing or oxidizing agent whose conjugate partner is a different
color.
58
Recognizing reduction and oxidation
Add the substance to Look for the color change Oxidizing agent Conjugate
reducing agent
acidified potassium manganate
(VII) solution purple colorless MnO 4-(aq) Mn2+(aq)
acidified potassium dichromate
solution orange green/blue Cr 2O72-(aq) Cr3+(aq)
Add the substance to Look for the color change Reducing agent Conjugate
oxidizing agent
iron (II) sulphate solution green yellow Fe 2+ (aq) Fe3+(aq)
potassium iodide solution colorless yellow/brown I -(aq) I2(aq)
59
Recognizing reduction and oxidation
Words
60
Chemistry Lab Safety Rules
Bakersfield College
Chemistry 2A
Physical Science 12
Safety Rules
1. Safety goggles must be worn during
chemistry experiments at all times. Wear
sensible clothing (confine long hair and fuzzy
clothing) and enclosed shoes, particularly
when doing chemistry labs.
Safety Rules
2. Know the locations and operating
instructions for the fire extinguishers, fire
blankets, fire alarms, fire hoses, first aid kit,
eye washes and showers. Wash eyes for at
least 15 minutes.
Safety Rules
3. Know the locations of the nearest available
telephones and emergency phone numbers
to use to call for help in case of an
emergency.
Emergency (395)-4555 or 9-911
Escort (395)-4554
You are in SE12 (395)-4242
Safety Rules
4. Keep burners in the middle of the lab table, not
on the edge. When heating liquids in test tubes,
never point the tube toward yourself or anyone
else. Never heat the test tube directly at the
bottom but tilt the tube and heat it gently
between the bottom of the tube and the top of
the liquid. Use boiling chips when boiling
liquids in a flask or beaker to prevent bumping.
Safety Rules
5. Follow instructions carefully. Know the
safety hazards of each experiment before
starting. Do not perform unauthorized
experiments. Only work in the laboratory
when supervised by an instructor.
Safety Rules
6. Keep tabletops clean. Return all equipment
to its original location before leaving the lab.
Clean all spills immediately.
Safety Rules
7. Report all accidents, no matter how minor,
to the instructor. If you break something
made of glass, be sure to use dustpan and
hand broom to sweep it up and dispose of it
in the glass waste receptacle.
Safety Rules
8. Never return chemicals to bottles of their
origin. If you have excess, give it to another
student or throw it away. Check labels on
containers twice to make sure you use the
right chemical and of the correct
concentration. Dispose of chemicals in
proper receptacle.
waffing
Safety Rules
9. Always add concentrated acids or bases to
water, never water to concentrated acids or
bases. Water holds more heat and if it
splatters it is more dilute. Use fume hoods
when noxious fumes may be present in an
experiment or use waffing.
Safety Rules
10. Do not stick objects into bottle except spatula
or dropper provided for that bottle. Do not set
the spatula or dropper down on the counter
(you may contaminate it). Keep each spatula or
dropper with the proper bottle. Return the
spatula or dropper to the tube attached to the
bottle to avoid switching.
Safety Rules
11. In case of an emergency where we have to
evacuate, proceed out the nearest exit and
stand away from the building. In case of
earthquake duck up against lab table and
cover face.
Safety Rules
12. Never put anything in your mouth while in the
lab (including chemicals, solutions, equipment,
cigarettes, food, drink, or gum). Put all food
and drinks in your bag.
Material Safety Data Sheets
(MSDS)
Material Safety Data Sheets
Are to be provided by
Suppliers with all
deliveries
MUST be Accessible to
EVERYONE in the
workplace
Must be current
Must be made available to
attending physician in the
event of exposure
DEFINITIONS
Flammable: ANY substance
easily ignited and quick burning,
including liquids with a flash point
below 95 degrees Fahrenheit.
Toxic: ANY substance (alone
or via chemical reaction) able
to cause harm/produce injury
to the body through
absorption, ingestion,
inhalation, or injection.
Caustic: ANY substance able
to burn, damage or destroy
organic tissue by chemical
reaction; Corrosive.
Definition contd
Flash point--the lowest
temperature at which a liquid
produces enough vapor to
ignite.
Density--(% of Water & Air);
Specific Gravity
Definition contd
PEL-Permissible Exposure Limit is the
standard recognized by industry as the
maximum amount or concentration of a
chemical that a worker may be exposed to.
TLVThreshold Limit Value is a
recommended limit for chemical substance
exposures, similar to the PEL but most often
more restrictive than the PEL.
TWA-an 8-hour Time-Weighted Average
is the concentration the average worker can
be exposed during an 8-hour workday, day
after day, without harmful effects.
STEL Short Term Exposure Limit is a
15 minute period.
Ceilingthe maximum (C) concentration
never to be exceeded.
Definition contd
Lethal Dose50 (LD50) is the
amount of a substance that,
when administered by a defined
route of entry (e.g. oral or
dermal) over a specified period
of time, is expected to cause
the death of 50% of a defined
animal population.
Definition contd
Lethal Concentration50 (LC50) is
the amount of a substance in
air that, when given by
inhalation over a specified
period of time, is expected to
cause the death in 50% of a
defined animal population.
READING THE MSDS
In the top ten BIC, almost all the time, sulphuric acid,
nitrogen, oxygen, ammonia, lime, sodium hydroxide,
phosphoric acid and chlorine dominate.
The reason sulphuric acid is always number one is because
it is used in the manufacture of fertilizers, polymers, drugs,
paints, detergents and paper. It is also used in petroleum
refining, metallurgy and in many other processes.
The top ranking of oxygen is to do with its use in the steel
industry.
Ethylene and propylene are usually among the top ten BOC.
They are used in the production of many organic chemicals
including polymers.
BIC and BOC are referred to as commodity or industrial
chemicals.
Commodity chemicals are therefore defined as low-valued
products produced in large quantities mostly in continuous
processes. They are of technical or general purpose grade.
Specialty Chemicals are high value-added products produced in
low volumes and sold on the basis of a specific function.
Examples: medicinal chemicals, agrochemi-cals, pigments, flavour
and fragrances, personal care products, surfactants and adhesives.
Performance chemicals are specialty chemicals, judged by
performance and efficiency, e.g. enzymes and dyes.
Fine Chemicals
At times you will find that the raw materials for your product need
to be very pure for the product to function as desired. they are
high value-added pure organic chemical substances produced in
relatively low volumes and sold on the basis of exact
specifications of purity rather than functional characteristics.
The global market share for each type is roughly as
follows:
Commodities 80%
Specialties 18%
Fine 2%
Coal, oil and natural gas (NG) are the primary raw materials for
production of most bulk chemicals.
Each stage adds value:
Relative value
Crude oil 1
Fuel 2
Typical petrochemical 10
5.1.3. Chemical Processes
Every industrial process is designed to produce a desired
product from a variety of starting raw materials using energy
through a succession of treatment steps integrated in a
rational fashion. The treatments steps are either physical or
chemical in nature.
The layout of a chemical process indicates areas where:
raw materials are pre-treated
conversion takes place
separation of products from by-products is carried out
refining/purification of products takes place
entry and exit points of services such as cooling water and
steam
Units that make up a chemical process
A chemical process consists of a combination of chemical
reactions such as synthesis, calcination, ion exchange,
electrolysis, oxidation, hydration and operations based on
physical phenomena such as evaporation, crystallization,
Units that make up a chemical process
A chemical process consists of a combination of chemical
reactions such as synthesis, calcination, ion exchange,
electrolysis, oxidation, hydration and operations based on
physical phenomena such as evaporation, crystallization,
distillation and extraction
Unit processes
Unit processes are the chemical transformations or
conversions that are performed in a process.
Unit Operations
There are many types of chemical processes that make up
the global chemical industry. However, each may be broken
down into a series of steps called unit operations. These
are the physical treatment steps, which are required to:
- put the raw materials in a form in which they can be reacted
chemically
- put the product in a form which is suitable for the market
Analytical Chemistry
Qualitative analysis
A qualitative analysis determines the presence or
absence of a particular compound, but not the mass or
concentration. By definition, qualitative analyses do not
measure quantity.
Chemical tests
There are numerous qualitative chemical tests, for
example, the acid test for gold and the Kastle-Meyer test
for the presence of blood.
Flame test
Inorganic qualitative analysis generally refers to a
systematic scheme to confirm the presence of certain,
usually aqueous, ions or elements by performing a series of
reactions that eliminate ranges of possibilities and then
confirms suspected ions with a confirming test. Sometimes
small carbon containing ions are included in such schemes.
With modern instrumentation these tests are rarely used but
can be useful for educational purposes and in field work or
other situations where access to state-of-the-art instruments
are not available or expedient
Quantitative analysis
Gravimetric analysis
Gravimetric analysis involves determining the amount of
material present by weighing the sample before and/or
after some transformation. A common example used in
undergraduate education is the determination of the
amount of water in a hydrate by heating the sample to
remove the water such that the difference in weight is
due to the loss of water.
Volumetric analysis
Titration involves the addition of a reactant to a solution
being analyzed until some equivalence point is reached.
Often the amount of material in the solution being
analyzed may be determined. Most familiar to those
who have taken chemistry during secondary education
is the acid-base titration involving a color changing
indicator. There are many other types of titrations, for
example potentiometric titrations. These titrations may
use different types of indicators to reach some
equivalence point.
Instrumental methods
Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy measures the interaction of the molecules
with electromagnetic radiation. Spectroscopy consists of
many different applications such as atomic absorption
spectroscopy, atomic emission spectroscopy, ultraviolet-
visible spectroscopy, x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy,
infrared spectroscopy,Raman spectroscopy, dual
polarisation interferometry, nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy, photoemission spectroscopy, Mssbauer
spectroscopy and so on.
Mass spectrometry
Mass spectrometry measures mass-to-charge ratio of
molecules using electric andmagnetic fields. There are
several ionization methods: electron impact, chemical
ionization, electrospray, fast atom bombardment, matrix
assisted laser desorption ionization, and others. Also,
mass spectrometry is categorized by approaches of
mass analyzers: magnetic-sector,quadrupole mass
analyzer, quadrupole ion trap, time-of-flight, Fourier
transform ion cyclotron resonance, and so on.
Electrochemical analysis
Electroanalytical methods measure the potential (volts)
and/or current(amps) in an electrochemical cell
containing the analyte. These methods can be
categorized according to which aspects of the cell are
controlled and which are measured. The three main
categories arepotentiometry (the difference in electrode
potentials is measured),coulometry (the cell's current is
measured over time), and voltammetry(the cell's current
is measured while actively altering the cell's potential).
Thermal analysis
Calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis measure the
interaction of a material and heat.
Separation
Separation processes are used to decrease the
complexity of material mixtures. Chromatography,
electrophoresis and Field Flow Fractionation are
representative of this field.
Hybrid techniques
Combinations of the above techniques produce a
"hybrid" or "hyphenated" technique. Several examples
are in popular use today and new hybrid techniques are
under development. For example, gas chromatography-
mass spectrometry, gas chromatography-infrared
spectroscopy, liquid chromatography-mass
spectrometry, liquid chromatography-NMR
spectroscopy, liquid chromagraphy-infrared
spectroscopy and capillary electrophoresis-mass
spectrometry.