PERCEPTION & ATTRIBUTION

INNER WORK LIFE

understanding the subtext of
performance
PERCEPTION DEFINED
The process by which we become aware of objects and events in the external world.
The process through which we select, organize and interpret the range of
visual, aural, tactile and chemical stimuli which impinge upon us. (Thompson &
McHugh, 2002)
Making sense of the world around us.
Many people ignore the fact that all of us are different and that these differences
equip us to view the world from our very own vantage points. Usually we spend
more energy defending our own position than understanding others.

Where does the triangle begin?

PERCEPTION
Perception is influenced by two factors:
Biological/NeurologicalHow we are hardwired
Universal to all humans
SocialThe different social influences in our lives
Differs in all humans (men vs. women; US vs. Japan; 12th vs. 21st Century)
It is important we understand this process if we are to become smart, competent
communicators
It is the thing that happens before we even open our mouths
There are four stages of perception
(if we could slow it down for examination)
STAGE 1: SELECTION
Life is a process of selecting information/data
We are confronted with millions of pieces of stimuli each day
(1,500 advertisements alone)
Factors That Influence Our Selection
A. Interest (College Basketball, Movies, Music)
B. Need (lectures, traffic lights, buying 1st car)
C. Aesthetics (noise, movement, color)
What advertisers, marketers, & designers do
D. Biology (sensation seeking, ADHD, circadian rhythms)

Sesame St. Syndrome

Educators competing with the mediaand losing
STAGE 2: ORGANIZATION
To eliminate the chaos of life and help make sense of the world, we simplify and
reduce our world
We put our selected data in cognitive folders
Also called: Schematas or Cognitive Frameworks

Three Principles of Organization:

A) Binary Opposition (all things in pairs)
male/female, short/tall, white/black, good/bad
B) Already formed social categories
Cheergirls, Italians
C) We also organize by similarities
size (big buildings), color (things that are purple),smell (things that make us hungry),
function (computer, phone, TV, DVD, VCR, CD player, pager, palm)
STAGE 3
INTERPRETATION/COMPREHENSION
Next, we have to Evaluate the data in our folders
Larger files (more complete and accurate)
Smaller files (simplistic and underdeveloped)

Our Comfort Zone:

Not Comfortable with New or Small Folders
We like our old, Big Folders (cricket) and avoid our small, underdeveloped folders (Sri
Lanka)
IIM will Force you to Make New Folders

Researchers now think that this is the reason for racism and prejudice
All that we know about Italians we have learned from Mafia Movies !
STAGE 4
RETENTION AND MEMORY
We Dont Retain All We Select!
Photographic Memory & Hypnosis (still not perfect)

Factors That Influence Long-term Memory

A) Recency of Time (today vs. 10 years from now)
B) Frequency of Use (628-2254, names, TV channels)
C) Importance (test information, PIN number, anniversary)
D) Emotional Connection (1st kiss,, wedding)
E) Weirdness/Uniqueness (sumo wrestlers)
THE ATTRIBUTION PROCESS
Attribution - the process through which individuals attempt to determine the causes behind
others behaviour
Correspondent Inferences - judgments about peoples dispositions, traits, and
characteristics that correspond to what we have observed of their actions

Challenges in judging others accurately

- many possible causes of behavior
- people sometimes disguise their true characteristics

Making accurate inferences about others

- focus on behavior in situations with low demand for social acceptability
- focus on behavior for which there is only one logical explanation
 KELLYS THEORY OF CAUSAL
ATTRIBUTION
Consensus - extent to which other people behave in the same manner as the
person who were judging
Consistency - extent to which the person who were judging acts the same way at
other times
Distinctiveness - extent to which a person behaves in the same manner in other
contexts
SUMMARY
You observe an individual complaining about the food, service,
You conclude that...
and decor in a restaurant. To answer Why? you note that...

This person always This person also S/he complained

No one else complains complains in this complains in because s/he is difficult
(consensus is low) restaurant other settings to please
(consistency is high) (distinctiveness is low) (internal attribution)

Several others also This person always This person does S/he complained
complains in this not complain in because the restaurant
complain restaurant other settings is terrible
(consensus is high) (consistency is high) (distinctiveness is high) (external attribution)
A MODEL OF ATTRIBUTION
THEORY
Perceiver Behavior
Causal Feelings
Event Attribution Conclusions

JUDGING SELF
JUDGING OTHERS
Self Serving Bias
Fundamental
Blame environment
Attribution Error
for failure, oneself
Behavior is a result of
for success
the person
PERCEPTUAL BIASES Predispositions that people
have to misperceive others in
various ways.
STEREOTYPING

Beliefs that all members of

specific groups share
similar traits and are prone
to behave the same way.
SELF SERVING BIAS
FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION
ERROR

The tendency to attribute others actions to

internal causes (e.g., their traits) while
largely ignoring external factors that also
may have influenced behavior.
FIRST IMPRESSION ERROR
The tendency to base our judgments of others on our
earlier impressions of them.
THE HALO EFFECT: A DEMONSTRATION
Characteristic 1
low high
Characteristic 2
low high
Characteristic 3
low high
Characteristic 4
low high

The more favorably someone is

perceived on some characteristics, the
more likely that s/he will be perceived
favorably on another characteristic, too.

Characteristic N
low high
SIMILAR-TO-ME EFFECT

The tendency for people to perceive in

a positive light others who are
believed to be similar to themselves in
any of several different ways.
SELECTIVE PERCEPTION

The tendency to focus on

some aspects of the
environment while ignoring
others.
 SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY
The tendency for someones expectations about another to cause that person to
behave in a manner consistent with those expectations.

a) Pygmalion Effect: A positive instance of the self-fulfilling prophecy, in which

people holding high expectations of another tend to improve that individuals
performance.
b) Golem Effect: A negative instance of the self-fulfilling prophecy, in which
people holding low expectations of another tend to lower that individuals
performance.
SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY
OVERCOMING BIASES

Do not overlook the external cases of others

behaviors.
Identify your stereotypes.
Evaluate people based on objective factors.
Avoid making rash judgments.
 IMPRESSION
MANAGEMENT
People form impressions of others and manage impressions of themselves at the same
time:
Social group membership (i.e. gender, age, social class, occupation, race and ethnicity)
suggests culturally defined expectations of behavior and values
Observable characteristics (i.e. appearance, clothing), verbal and non-verbal
communication are all taken into account
Impression management: Behaving in ways so that others perceive us how we want
to be perceived. Also known as self-presentation, is the conscious or unconscious
attempt to appear a certain way to other people.
IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT TACTICS

The target of perception matches A subordinate tries to imitate her bosss

Behavioral
his or her behavior to that of the behavior by being modest and soft-spoken
Matching perceiver. because her boss is modest and soft-spoken.

The target tries to present herself A worker reminds his boss about his past
Self-
or himself in as positive a light as accomplishments and associates with co-
Promotion possible. workers who are evaluated highly.

Appreciating The target compliments the per- A coworker compliments a manager on his
ceiver. This tactic works best when excellent handling of a troublesome employee.
or Flattering
flattery is not extreme and when it
Others involves a dimension important
to the perceiver.
APPLICANT IMPRESSION
MANAGEMENT
Arena
Blind spot

Facade Unknown