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Over the years, the use of energy has increased sharply in the
domestic, industrial, transportation and agricultural sectors
in India.

Electrical energy, especially, is one of the most expensive

forms of purchased energy, and hence, its use must be
confined to optimum levels for efficient and cost effective
operation.

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Electrical System
Topics for Discussion:

Electrical Load Management

Maximum demand Control
Power Factor Improvement and its benefit
Selection and location of capacitors
Performance assessment of PF capacitors

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Introduction to Electric Power Supply System
Power Generating Station
Substation (Step UP)
High Voltage Transmission Lines

Substation (Step Down)

Distribution Transmission Lines
End Users

Agriculture Residential Industry Others

30% 18% 39% 13%

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Introduction to Electric Power Supply System
Power Generating Station :
Fossil fuels like coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear energy, water
are commonly used as energy sources in the power
generating plant.
Co-generation, solar energy, wind energy and waste
materials also form a growing variety of unconventional
generation source.
70% of power generation capacity in India is coal based
thermal power plant with overall efficiency ranging from 30-
35% depending upon size, operational practices & capacity
utilisation.

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Introduction to Electric Power Supply System
Transmission and Distribution Lines :
The power plants typically produce
50 Hertz (cycle/second),
alternating-current (AC) electricity with
voltages between 11kV and 33kV.
The 3-phase power is stepped up to a higher voltage for
transmission on conductors. High voltage (HV) and extra
high voltage (EHV) transmission is usually carried out at 220
kV & 400 kV over long distances.
Where transmission is over 1000 kM, high voltage direct
current transmission is also used to minimize the losses.

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Introduction to Electric Power Supply System
Transmission and Distribution Lines :
High voltage transmission is used so that:
small & more economical wire sizes can be employed
to carry the lower current and to reduce losses.
Sub transmission at 132 kV, 110 kV,66kV and 33 kV constitute
the next link to the end user.
Sub-stations, containing step-down transformers, reduce the
voltage for distribution to industrial users.
Distribution at 11 kV/6.6kV/3.3kV constitutes the last link to
the consumer.

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Introduction to Electric Power Supply System
Transmission and Distribution Lines :
Voltage drops in a line is in relation to the resistance of the
line, length and the current drawn.
For the same quantity of power handled, lower the voltage,
higher will be the current drawn and higher the voltage drop.

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Introduction to Electric Power Supply System
Transmission and Distribution Lines :
Power loss in line is proportional to resistance of the line
i.e.: PLoss = I2R = I2z
High voltage transmission and distribution will help in
minimizing line voltage drop in the ratios of voltages and the
line power loss in the ratio of square of voltages.
For Exp: If the distribution power is raised from 11 kV to 66
kV, voltage drop would lower by a factor 1/6 & the line loss
would lower by a factor of (1/6)2 = 1/36.
Lower voltage transmission & distribution would also call for
bigger size of conductor to handle higher current .

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Introduction to Electric Power Supply System
Transmission and Distribution Lines:
The primary function of transmission and distribution
equipment is to transfer power economically and reliably
from one location to another.
Conductors form the main part of T & D system.
Other equipments like fuses, interrupting switches, circuit
breakers and relays also form part of T& D system. These
devices form the protective circuit in case of abnormal
voltages, current and frequency.
Transformers are also placed at suitable locations through out
the T &D system to minimize losses in the system.

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Introduction to Electric Power Supply System
Industrial end User:
At the industrial premises elements like transformers,
switchgears and cables, capacitors and the loading
equipments like motors form the plant network. Power
generation reaching the industrial end user with 17% T&D
losses the efficiency of generation and transmission would be
83%.
In a typical industrial distribution network transformer
efficiency would be 95%;motor efficiency of 90%;mechanical
system of efficiency of 70%.Thus the overall energy efficiency
becomes 50%. (0.83 x 0.95x 0.90 x 0.70 = 0.50, i.e. 50%
efficiency)
So, one unit saved in the end user is equivalent to two units
generated in the power plant.

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 Electrical Load Management
What is Electrical Load Management?
Electrical Load Management is the process of
scheduling load usage so as to reduce the electricity
use during peak load periods.
Need for Electrical Load Management?
Growth in the electricity use, diversity of end use,
time of use has led to shortfalls in capacity to meet
demand.
Better load management at user end helps to
minimize peak demands as well as better utilization of
power plant capacities.

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Electrical Load Management
Why the Need for Electrical Load Management?
The utilities (State Electricity Boards) use power tariff
structure to influence end user in better load management
through measures like
time of use tariffs,
penalties on exceeding allowed Max. demand,
night tariff concessions etc.
Load management is a powerful means of efficiency
improvement both for end user as well as utility.

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Power Factor Improvement
Power Factor
To understand power factor, first start with the definition of
some basic terms:
KW is Working Power (also called Actual Power or
Active Power or Real Power). It is the power that
actually powers the equipment and performs useful work.
KVAR is Reactive Power. It is the power that magnetic
equipment (transformer, motor and relay) needs to produce
the magnetizing flux.
KVA is Apparent Power. It is the vectorial summation of
KVAR and KW.

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Power Factor Basics

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Power Factor Basics

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Power Factor Improvement
Causes Low Power Factor
Low power factors would occur when KVAR is large.
What causes a large KVAR in a system? The answer is
INDUCTIVE LOADS.
Inductive loads include:
Transformers, Induction motors
These inductive loads constitute a major portion of the power
consumed in industrial complexes.

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Power Factor Improvement
Effects of Reactive Power / Low pf
Reactive power entails:
increased magnetizing current for given kW leading to
higher kVAr.
Additional I2R loss of energy in the form of heat in every item
of system
Voltage drop in the reactive circuit
kW output of transformer, T& D system is hampered. Thus
handling capacity of the equipment reduces.
Reduction of system efficiency.

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Power Factor Improvement
How Do I Correct (Improve) My Power Factor?
We have seen that inductive loads decrease power factor:
Transformers
Induction motors
Similarly, equipments that increase power factor:
Capacitors
Synchronous motors
Thus, it comes as no surprise that one way to increase power
factor is to add capacitors to the system.

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Power Factor Improvement
Power Factor Improvement
Installing capacitors decreases the magnitude of reactive power
(KVAR or foam), thus increasing your power factor.
Here is how it works

Reactive power (KVAr), caused by inductive loads, always acts at a

90-degree angle to working power (KW). 20
 Power Factor Improvement
Benefits of PF Improvement
1. Reactive component of the network is reduced and so also the
total current in the system from the source end.
2. I2R power losses are reduced in the system because of reduction
in current.

% power loss reduction = 100 x{1- (PF old/PF New)2}

3. Voltage level at the load end is increased.

% voltage rise = kVAr of capacitor x % imp. of transformer

kVA of transformer

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Power Factor Improvement
4. kVA loading on the source generators as also on the
transformers and lines upto capacitors reduces, giving
capacity relief. A high power factor can help in utilizing the
full capacity of the electrical system.

Cost Benefits of PF Improvement

1. Reduced kVA (Maximum demand) charges in utility bill

2. Reduced distribution losses (KWH) within the plant network
3. Better voltage at motor terminals and improved performance
of motors
4. A high power factor eliminates penalty charges imposed
when operating with a low power factor
5. Investment on system facilities such as transformers, cables,
switchgears etc for delivering load is reduced.
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Selection of Capacitors
Capacitor sizing can be done by following equation:

kVAr Rating = kW(Tan Old Tan )

New

where, kVAr rating is the size of the capacitor needed,

kW is the average power drawn,
Old = Existing (Cos-1 PF) and
New = Improved (Cos-1 PF)

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Location of Capacitors
It could be:
At HT bus / transformer
LT bus of transformer
Load points
Remember: Maximum benefit, if pf
correction is in the reverse order of flow of current.
Hence:
Identify the sources of low pf loads in plant
Reduce I2R loss
Release of system capacity(kVA) happens if reactive
current is reduced.

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Performance Assessment of PF Capacitors
Voltage effects: Ideally capacitor voltage rating is to match the
supply voltage. If the supply voltage is lower, the reactive kVAr
produced will be the ratio V12 / V22 where V1 is the actual supply
voltage, V2 is the rated voltage.

On the other hand, if the supply voltage exceeds rated voltage,

the life of the capacitor is adversely affected.

Material of capacitors: Power factor capacitors are available in

various types by dielectric material used as; paper/ polypropylene
etc.

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