Equipment

involved in
Manufacturing
(Metals)
Obias, Cherry Mae V.
Pura II, John Dennis C.
Ignacio, Fernand Lui B.
Manufacturing: Introduction
Overview
The word manufacturing is derived from the Latin manu factus,
meaning made by hand. Manufacturing involves making products from
raw materials by various processes or operations.
Manufacturing activities must be
responsive to several demands and trends:
A product must fully meet design requirements and specifications.
A product must be manufactured by the most economical methods in
order to minimize costs.
Quality must be built into the product at each stage, from design to
assembly, rather than relying on quality testing after the product is
made.
In a highly competitive environment, production methods must be
sufficiently flexible so as to respond to changing market demands,
types of products, production rates, production quantities, and on-
time delivery to the customer.
 New developments in materials, production methods, and computer
integration of both technological and managerial activities in a manufacturing
organization must constantly be evaluated with a view to their timely and
economic implementation.
Manufacturing activities must be viewed as a large system, each part of which
is interrelated to others. Such systems can be modelled in order to study the
effect of factors such as changes in market demands, product design, material
and various other costs, and production methods on product quality and cost.
The manufacturing organization must constantly strive for higher productivity,
defined as the optimum use of all its resources: materials, machines, energy,
capital, labour and technology. Output per employee per hour in all phases
must be maximized.
The broad categories of processing methods for materials are:
Metal Casting Expendable mold and permanent mold .
Metal Forming
Rolling, forging, extrusion, drawing, sheet forming, powder metallurgy, and molding .
& shaping
Blow Molding, CNC Machining, Centrifugal Casting, Continuous Strip Molding, Compression
Molding, Profile Extrusion, Continuous Lamination, Injection Molding, Filament Winding,
Plastics Molding
Thermoforming,Vacuum Forming, Pressure Bag Molding, Pressure Forming, Pulshaping, Twin
& Forming
Sheet Forming, Pultrusion, Liquid Resin Molding, Reaction Injection Molding (RIM), Rotational
Molding, Resin transfer molding (RTM)
Stereolithography - SLA or SL, 3D Printing - 3DP, Selective Laser Sintering - SLS, Fused-
Deposition Modeling - FDM, Solid-Ground Curing - SGC, Laminated Object Manufacturing -
Rapid Prototyping
LOM, Multi-Jet Modeling - MJM, Direct Shell Production Casting - DSPC, Polyjet Technology,
Laser Engineered Net Shaping - LENS
Joining Welding, brazing, soldering, diffusion bonding, adhesive bonding, and mechanical joining .
Turning, boring, drilling, milling, planing, shaping, broaching, grinding, ultrasonic machining,
Machining
chemical, electrical, and electrochemical machining and high-energy beam machining .
Honing, lapping, polishing, burnishing, deburring, surface treating, coating and plating
Finishing Operations
processes.
Manufacturing Processes -CNC Machining
Overview
Machine Tools are stationary power-driven machines used to shape or
form solid materials, especially metals. The shaping is accomplished by
removing material from a workpiece or by pressing it into the desired
shape. Machine tools form the basis of modern industry and are used
either directly or indirectly in the manufacture of machine and tool parts.
3 Main Categories of Machine
Tool

1. Conventional chip-making machine tools.

2. Presses.
3. Unconventional machine tools.
1. Conventional chip-making tools
shapes the work piece by cutting away the unwanted portion in the form
of chips.
Presses employ a number of different shaping processes, including
shearing, pressing, or drawing (elongating).
Unconventional machine tools employ light, electrical, chemical, and
sonic energy; superheated gases; and high-energy particle beams to shape
the exotic materials and alloys that have been developed to meet the
needs of modern technology.
Conventional Machine Tools
Lathe
- A lathe, the oldest and most common type of turning machine, holds and
rotates metal or wood while a cutting tool shapes the material. The tool may be
moved parallel to or across the direction of rotation to form parts that have a
cylindrical or conical shape or to cut threads. With special attachments, a lathe
may also be used to produce flat surfaces, as a milling machine does, or it may
drill or bore holes in the workpiece.
Shaper
The shaper is used primarily to produce flat surfaces.
The tool slides against the stationary workpiece and cuts on one stroke,
returns to its starting position, and then cuts on the next stroke after a
slight lateral displacement. In general, the shaper can produce almost any
surface composed of straight-line elements.
It uses a single-point tool and is relatively slow, because it depends on
reciprocating (alternating forward and return) strokes. For this reason, the
shaper is seldom found on a production line.
It is, however, valuable for tool and die rooms and for job shops where
flexibility is essential and relative slowness is unimportant because few
identical pieces are being made.
Shaper
Planer

The planer is the largest of the reciprocating machine tools. Unlike the
shaper, which moves a tool past a fixed workpiece, the planer moves the
workpiece past a fixed tool.
After each reciprocating cycle, the workpiece is advanced laterally to
expose a new section to the tool. Like the shaper, the planer is intended to
produce vertical, horizontal, or diagonal cuts.
It is also possible to mount several tools at one time in any or all tool
holders of a planer to execute multiple simultaneous cuts.
Planer
Milling Machines - Machining Centers

In a milling machine, a workpiece is fed against a circular device with a series

of cutting edges on its circumference.
The workpiece is held on a table that controls the feed against the cutter. The
table conventionally had three possible movements: longitudinal, horizontal,
and vertical. Modern milling machines, such as routers, use robotic arms and
can be up to 9 - axis.
Milling machines are the most versatile of all machine tools. Flat or
contoured surfaces may be machined with excellent finish and accuracy.
Angles, slots, gear teeth, and recess cuts can be made by using various
cutters.
Types of CNC Machining
Centers:
Vertical
Horizontal
Bed
Knee Mills
Milling Machine
Drilling and Boring Machines
Hole-making machine tools are used to drill a hole where none previously
existed; to alter a hole in accordance with some specification (by boring or
reaming to enlarge it, or by tapping to cut threads for a screw); or to lap or
hone a hole to create an accurate size or a smooth finish.
Drilling machines vary in size and function, ranging from portable drills to
radial drilling machines, multispindle units, automatic production machines,
and deep-hole-drilling machines.
Boring is a process that enlarges holes previously drilled, usually with a
rotating single-point cutter held on a boring bar and fed against a stationary
workpiece. Boring machines include jig borers and vertical and horizontal
boring mills.
Drilling & Boring Machine
Grinder
Grinding is the removal of metal by a rotating abrasive wheel; the action is
similar to that of a milling cutter.
The wheel is composed of many small grains of abrasive, bonded together,
with each grain acting as a miniature cutting tool.
The process produces extremely smooth and accurate finishes. Because only
a small amount of material is removed at each pass of the wheel, grinding
machines require fine wheel regulation.
The pressure of the wheel against the workpiece can be made very slight, so
that grinding can be carried out on fragile materials that cannot be machined
by other conventional devices.
Grinder
Saws
Commonly used power-driven saws are classified into three
general types, according to the kind of motion used in the
cutting action: reciprocating, circular, and band-sawing
machines. They generally consist of a bed or frame, a vise for
clamping the workpiece, a feed mechanism, and the saw
blade.
Saw
Press

Presses shape workpieces without cutting away material, that is, without
making chips.
A press consists of a frame supporting a stationary bed, a ram, a power
source, and a mechanism that moves the ram in line with or at right angles
to the bed.
Presses are equipped with dies and punches designed for such operations as
forming, punching, and shearing.
Presses are capable of rapid production because the operation time is that
needed for only one stroke of the ram.
Press
Cutting Tools
Because cutting processes involve high local stresses, frictions, and considerable
heat generation, cutting-tool material must combine strength, toughness,
hardness, and wear resistance at elevated temperatures.
These requirements are met in varying degrees by such cutting-tool materials as
carbon steels (steel containing 1 to 1.2 percent carbon), high-speed steels (iron
alloys containing tungsten, chromium, vanadium, and carbon), tungsten carbide,
and diamonds and by such recently developed materials as ceramic, carbide
ceramic, and aluminum oxide.
In many cutting operations fluids are used to cool and lubricate. Cooling increases
tool life and helps to stabilize the size of the finished part. Lubrication reduces
friction, thus decreasing the heat generated and the power required for a given cut.
Cutting fluids include water-based solutions, chemically inactive oils, and synthetic
fluids
Cutting Tools
Manufacturing: Non-traditional
Machining
Introduction

When people hear the word "machining" they generally think of machines that utilize
mechanical energy to remove material from the work piece.
Milling machines, saws and lathes are some of the most common machines using
mechanical energy to remove material.
The tool makes contact with the work piece and the resulting shear causes the material to
flow over the tool.
All traditional forms of metal cutting use shear as the primary method of material
removal. However, there are other sources of energy at work.
Chemical energy has a significant effect on every turning operation. Think of the effect
that different kinds of coolants have on the cutting action of a tool.
.
 The category of nontraditional machining covers a broad range of
technologies, including some that are used on a large scale, and others that
are only used in unique or proprietary applications.
These machining methods generally have higher energy requirements and
slower throughputs than traditional machining, but have been developed for
applications where traditional machining methods were impractical,
incapable, or uneconomical.
Nontraditional machining can be thought of as operations that do not use
shear as their primary source of energy. For example, abrasive water jet
operations use mechanical energy, but material is removed by erosion.
Non traditional machining methods are typically
divided into the following categories:
Mechanical - Ultrasonic Machining, Rotary Ultrasonic Machining,
Ultrasonically Assisted Machining

Electrical - Electrochemical Discharge Grinding, Electrochemical Grinding,

Electrochemical Honing,Hone-Forming, Electrochemical Machining,
Electrochemical Turning, Shaped Tube Electrolytic Machining, Electro-Stream

Thermal - Electron Beam Machining, Electrical Discharge Machining, Electrical

Discharge Wire Cutting, Electrical Discharge Grinding, Laser Beam Machining.

Chemical - Chemical Milling, Photochemical Machining

Non traditional Machining
Processes
Non-traditional Machining Processes
Abrasive Flow Machinging - (AFM)
Chemical Machining
Chemical MillingElectrical Discharge Grinding (EDG)
Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)
Electrochemical Discharge Grinding (ECDG)
Electrochemical Grinding (ECG)
Electrochemical Honing (ECH)
Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
Electrochemical Turning (ECT)
Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
Ion Beam Milling - (IBM)
Laser Beam Machining - (LBM)Laser Cutting
Laser DrillingPhotochemical Machining - (PCM)
Plasma Arc Machining- (PAM)
Ultrasonic Machining
WaterJet Machining
AbrasiveJet Machining
Abrasive Flow Machining (AFM)

Milling Abrasive Flow Machine (AFM) is a nontraditional machining process that is used
to deburr, polish, radius, and remove recast layers of critical components in aerospace,
automotive, electronic and die-making industries.
Extrude Hone patented the Abrasive Flow Machining (AFM) process in the 1960's as a
method to deburr, polish and radius difficult-to-reach surfaces.
AFM operates by flowing an abrasive laden viscoelastic compound through a restrictive
passage formed by a workpart/tooling combination. Inaccessible areas and complex
contours both internal and external can be finished economically and productively.
The workpiece is hydraulically clamped between two vertically opposing media
cylinders.
The AFM process starts with the lower cylinder filled with the proper volume of the
abrasive laden media.
The media is then extruded through the work-piece and into the upper media cylinder.
The procedure is reversed as the media is fed back through the part and into the lower
cylinder. This combination of one upstroke and one downstroke constitutes a complete
AFM cycle.
 AFM can work within areas that are inaccessible to conventional manual
finishing methods.
Unlike conventional processes, AFM can be fully automated to provide a much
more cost-effective method of finishing extrusion dies and aircraft and
aerospace components.
AFM is used in a wide range of finishing operations. It can simultaneously
process multiple parts or many areas of a single workpiece. Inaccessible areas
and complex internal passages can be finished economically and effectively.
Automatic AFM systems are capable of handling thousands of parts per day,
greatly reducing labor costs by eliminating tedious handwork.
Chemical Machining

Chemical Machining aides in the manufacture of light gauge metal parts. The photo etching
process (also called chemical etching and chemical milling) allows people to produce
intricate metal components with close tolerances that are impossible to duplicate by other
production methods. It is also known as chemical milling.

Applications -

Chemical Machining is utilized in the manufacturing of encoders, masks, filters, lead frames,
flat springs, strain gauges, laminations, chip carriers, step covers, fuel cell plates, heat sinks,
shutter blades, electron grids, fluidic circuit plates, reticles, drive bands, haptics, and shims.
Chemical Milling

Chemical Milling aides in the manufacture of light gauge metal parts. The photo etching
process (also called chemical etching and chemical milling) allows people to produce intricate
metal components with close tolerances that are impossible to duplicate by other production
methods. It is also known as chemical machining.

Applications

Chemical Milling is utilized in the manufacturing of encoders, masks, filters, lead frames, flat
springs, strain gauges, laminations, chip carriers, step covers, fuel cell plates, heat sinks,
shutter blades, electron grids, fluidic circuit plates, reticles, drive bands, haptics, and shims.
Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)
Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM), also known as spark erosion, employs
electrical energy to remove metal from the workpiece without touching it.
A pulsating high- frequency electric current is applied between the tool point
and the workpiece, causing sparks to jump the gap and vaporize small areas of
the workpiece.
Because no cutting forces are involved, light, delicate operations can be
performed on thin workpieces.
EDM can produce shapes unobtainable by any conventional machining
process.
Electrical Discharge Grinding - EDG
A process which is basically the same as EDM
Ram EDM
A process using a shaped electrode made from graphite or copper.
The electrode is separated by a nonconductive liquid and maintained at a close
distance (about 0.001").
A high DC voltage is pulsed to the electrode and jumps to the conductive
workpiece.
The resulting sparks erode the workpiece and generate a cavity in the reverse
shape of the electrode, or a through hole in the case of a plain electrode.
Permits machining shapes to tight accuracies without the internal stresses
conventional machining often generates. Also known as die-sinker or
sinker electrical-discharge machining.
Wire EDM
A process similar to sinker electrical-discharge machining except a small-
diameter copper or brass wire is used as a traveling electrode.
The process is usually used in conjunction with a CNC and will only work when
a part is to be cut completely through.
A common analogy is to describe wire electrical-discharge machining as an
ultraprecise, electrical, contour-sawing operation.
Applications -

EDM permits machining shapes to tight accuracies without the internal stresses
conventional machining often generates. Useful in diemaking.
Electrochemical Discharge Grinding (ECDG)
Electrochemical-discharge grinding is a combination of electrochemical
grinding and electrical-discharge machining.
The process is very similar to conventional EDM except a grinding-wheel type
of electrode is used.
Material is removed by both processes. Like any EDM process, the workpiece
and the grinding wheel never come into contact.
Electrochemical Honing - ECH
A process similar to electrochemical grinding involving the use of honing
stones rather than a grinding wheel.
Electrochemical machining (ECM)
Electrochemical machining (ECM) also uses electrical energy to remove
material.
An electrolytic cell is created in an electrolyte medium, with the tool as the
cathode and the workpiece as the anode.
A high-amperage, low-voltage current is used to dissolve the metal and to
remove it from the workpiece, which must be electrically conductive.ECM is
essentially a deplating process that utilizes the principles of electrolysis.
The ECM tool is positioned very close to the workpiece and a low voltage, high
amperage DC current is passed between the two via an electrolyte.
Advantages of Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
1. The components are not subject to either thermal or mechanical stress.
2. There is no tool wear during Electrochemical machining.
3. Non-rigid and open work pieces can be machined easily as there is no contact between the
tool and workpiece.
4. Complex geometrical shapes can be machined repeatedly and accurately
5. Electrochemical machining is a time saving process when compared with conventional
machining
6. During drilling, deep holes can be made or several holes at once.
7. ECM deburring can debur difficult to access areas of parts.
8. Fragile parts which cannot take more loads and also brittle material which tend to develop
cracks during machining can be machined easily through Electrochemical machining
9. Surface finishes of 25 in. can be achieved during Electrochemical machining
 Electrochemical Turning (ECT)
- A variation of Electrochemical Machining.
Electron-beam Machining - EBM
- In electron-beam machining (EBM), electrons are accelerated to a velocity
nearly three-fourths that of light (~200,000 km/sec).
- The process is performed in a vacuum chamber to reduce the scattering of
electrons by gas molecules in the atmosphere.
- The electron beam is aimed using magnets to deflect the stream of electrons
and is focused using an electromagnetic lens.
- The stream of electrons is directed against a precisely limited area of the
workpiece; on impact, the kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into
thermal energy that melts and vaporizes the material to be removed, forming
holes or cuts.
Ion Beam Milling - (IBM)
In simple terms ion beam milling can be viewed as an atomic sand blaster.
The grains of sand are actually submicron ion particles accelerated to bombard the surface of the work mounted on a
rotating table inside a vacuum chamber.
The work is typically a wafer, substrate or element that requires material removal by atomic sandblasting or dry etching.
A selectively applied protectant, photo sensitive resist, is applied to the work element prior to introduction into the ion
miller.
The resist protects the underlying material during the etching process which may be up to eight hours or longer, depending
upon the amount to be removed and the etch rate of the materials.
Everything that is exposed to the collimated ion beam (may be 15" in diameter in some equipment) etches during the
process cycle, even the resist.
In most micromachining applications the desired material to be removed etches at a rate 3 to 10 times faster than the resist
protectant thus preserving the material and features underneath the resist.

Applications -

Ion Beam Milling is used in fabricating electronic and mechanical elements for a wide variety of commercial, industrial,
military and satellite applications including custom film circuits for RF and Microwave circuits.
Laser-beam machining -- LBM

Laser-beam machining (LBM) is accomplished by precisely manipulating a beam of coherent light to

vaporize unwanted material. LBM is particularly suited to making accurately placed holes. It can be
used to perform precision micromachining on all microelectronic substrates such as ceramic, silicon,
diamond, and graphite. Examples of microelectronic micromachining include cutting, scribing &
drilling all substrates, trimming any hybrid resistors, patterning displays of glass or plastic and trace
cutting on semiconductor wafers and chips.

Applications -

The LBM process can make holes in refractory metals and ceramics and in very thin materials
without warping the workpiece. The laser can scribe, drill, mark, and cut thin metals and ceramics,
trim resistors, and process plastics, silicon, diamond, and graphite with tolerances to one micron.
Laser Cutting

Milling Laser cutting is the process of vaporizing material in a very small, well-
defined area. The laser itself is a single point cutting source with a very small
point, (0.001" to 0.020" / 0.025mm to 0.5mm) allowing for very small cut
widths.

The advantages of cutting with a laser make it a preferred choice over

conventional cutting methods.
 Laser Cutting Advantages

1. There is almost no limit to the cutting path; the point can move in any direction unlike
other processes that use knives or saws.
2. The process is forceless allowing very fragile or flimsy parts to be laser cut with no
support.
3. Since the laser beam exerts no force on the part and is a very small spot, the technology is
well suited to fabricating high accuracy parts, especially flexible materials. The part keeps
its original shape from start to finish.
4. The laser beam is always sharp and can cut very hard or abrasive materials.
5. Sticky materials that would otherwise gum up a blade are not an obstacle for a laser.
6. Lasers cut at high speeds. The speed at which the material can be processed is limited only
by the power available from the laser.
7. Cutting with lasers is a very cost effective process with low operating and maintenance
costs and maximum flexibility.
Laser Drilling

Laser drilling is the process of repeatedly pulsing focused laser energy at a

specific material.

Milling the laser beam consistently drills holes down to 0.004" with little or no
debris. Holes with length-to-diameter ratios of up to 50 can be drilled with
reliable, high quality results.

With lasers it is possible to drill in very difficult locations using mirrors to bend
the beam. Laser drilling at very high rates, 1000 pulses per second or greater, is
also possible
Laser Drilling Advantages --

Using laser system software, the operator instantly can control hole shape and
size to produce round, oval or rectangular holes, or any shape imaginable. This
eliminates downtime due to tool changes.
Very small holes can be laser drilled in production. A focused spot can be as
small as 0.1mm (0.004") in diameter.
Since the tool is a beam of light, the tool never needs to be replaced
eliminating downtime because of punch breakage.
Photo Chemical Machining - (PCM)

Photochemical Machining - (PCM) components are produced by the photo-etching technique using a wide array of
metal and alloys.
This technique avoids burrs, no mechanical stresses are built into the parts and the properties of the metal worked
are not affected.
Hardened and tempered metals are machined as easily as regular metals. The technique is ideal for machining thin
metals and foils.
Parts with very precise and intricate designs can be produced without difficulty.
The photo chemical machining/milling processes can precisely etch lines and spaces on all types of metals (alloys:
kovar, nickel, brass, beryllium, copper, stainless steel, aluminum, and others) with detailed accuracies.
This is used for creating specialty flex circuits, plus in engineering of other rigid technologies. This results in a burr
free part with very close tolerances.

Applications -

The technique is ideal for machining thin metals and foils. Parts with very precise and intricate designs can be
produced without difficulty.
Plasma Arc Machining

Plasma-arc machining (PAM) employs a high-velocity jet of high-temperature gas to melt and displace material
in its path. Called PAM, this is a method of cutting metal with a plasma-arc, or tungsten inert-gas-arc, torch.
The torch produces a high velocity jet of high-temperature ionized gas called plasma that cuts by melting and
removing material from the workpiece. Temperatures in the plasma zone range from 20,000 to 50,000 F
(11,000 to 28,000 C).

It is used as an alternative to oxyfuel-gas cutting, employing an electric arc at very high temperatures to melt
and vaporize the metal.

Applications -

The materials cut by PAM are generally those that are difficult to cut by any other means, such as stainless
steels and aluminum alloys. It has an accuracy of about 0.008".
Waterjet Machining
A water jet cutter is a tool capable of slicing into metal or other materials using
a jet of water at high velocity and pressure. It is often used during fabrication
or manufacture of parts for machinery and other devices. It has found
applications in a diverse number of industries from mining to aerospace where
it is used for operations such as cutting, shaping, carving, reaming.

The cutter is commonly connected to a high-pressure water pump (a local

water main does not supply sufficient pressure) where the water is then
ejected out of the nozzle, cutting through the material by bombarding it with
the stream of high-speed water. Additives in the form of suspended grit or
other abrasives, such as sand and silicon carbide, can assist in this process.
Because the nature of the cutting stream can be easily modified, water jets can
be used to cut materials as diverse as fish sticks and titanium.
Abrasive Jet Machining
Abrasive waterjet cutting systems (abrasivejet) use a combination of water
and garnet to cut through materials considered "unmachineable" by
conventional cutting methods.
Using small amounts of water while eliminating the friction caused by tool-
to-part contact, abrasivejet cutting avoids thermal damage or heat affected
zones (HAZ) which can adversely affect metallurgic properties in materials
being cut.
The ability to pierce through material also eliminates the need and cost of
drilling starter holes. Because abrasivejet cuts with a narrow kerf, parts can
be tightly nested thus maximizing material usage
Manufacturing: Metal Casting
Casting is a manufacturing process where a solid is melted, heated to
proper temperature (sometimes treated to modify its chemical
composition), and is then poured into a cavity or mold, which
contains it in the proper shape during solidification.
Thus, in a single step, simple or complex shapes can be made from
any metal that can be melted. The resulting product can have virtually
any configuration the designer desires.
In addition, the resistance to working stresses can be optimized,
directional properties can be controlled, and a pleasing appearance
can be produced.
 Metal Casting Methods

Conventional Mo
lding Precision Moldi Chemically Bonded Innovative Molding
Processes and Casting Proce
ng Processes Sand Molding Proce sses
sses
Metal Casting Techniques

Conventional Molding Processes -

These are the conventional molding processes which are the most widely
used in the foundry industry today.
Green Sand Molding - (Variations shown below)
High-Density Molding (High Squeeze Pressures, Impact)
Flaskless Molding
Tight-Flask Molding
Skin-Dried
Dry Sand Molding
 Green Sand Molding

High-Density Molding (High Squeeze Pressures, Impact)

Advantages
Most metals can be cast by this process.
Castings produced with this method also demonstrate closer dimensional tolerances, consistently uniform
casting weight, better surface finish, increased productivity, and lower cost.
Reduced feed metal
Improved casting soundness
Reduced cleaning costs
Minimum setup for machining because of casting dimensional accuracy.
Disadvantage
Tighter quality controls are required with this type of molding. As a result, the foundry using high-pressure
(high-density) molding is generally accustomed to more sophisticated equipment, maintenance, and
operating procedures.
Flaskless Molding

Advantages
No expenditure is required for flasks nor is there any cleaning or
maintenance of flasks.
Working conditions are improved and there is no handling, storing or
shakeout of flasks.
Disadvantages
Restrictions apply to size of casting, use of complicated cores and core
assemblies, and number of castings per mold. Mold handling may be more
difficult.
Tight Flask Molding
The tight flask molding process uses a flask (made of metal or wood) to
contain the sand during the mold producing operation.
The flask remains around the sand during the core setting, dosing of the
mold, pouring and cooling of the casting.
After cooling, castings and sand are separated from the flasks, which are
then reused to produce more molds.
Tight Flask Molding
Advantages
This method offers more flexibility in type and number of castings poured
per mold.
Increased use of the total flask surface when compared to flaskless molding.
Increases the size and weight of a casting which may be poured.
Use of complicated cores or core assemblies is not a problem compared to
flaskless molding.
Disadvantage
Flask handling systems require capital investment and a good maintenance
program. The variety and size of castings produced in a tight flask molding
line may require changing the flask for a larger size casting.
Skin Dried Molding
Skin-dried or air-dried molds are sometimes preferred to green sand molds
where assurance is desired that the surface moisture and other gas-forming
materials are lowered.
By skin drying the face of the mold after special bonding materials have
been added to the sand molding mixture, a firm mold face is produced
similar to that obtained in dry sand practice.
Shakeout of the mold is almost as good as that obtained with green sand
molding.
Skin-dried molds are commonly employed in making medium-heavy and
heavy castings
Skin Dried Molding

Advantages
This process reduces surface moisture and other gas-forming materials from
mold. It can commonly be used in the production of medium-heavy to
heavy castings.
Disadvantages
These molds are more expensive to produce. Mold sections must be
completely dry and cool prior to assembly.
Dry Sand Molding

Dry sand molding is the green sand practice modified by baking the mold at
400-600F (204-316C). Some foundries use dry sand molds to produce
intricate parts which are difficult to cast to exact size and dimensions.
Molds are generally dried (or baked) in large mold drying or with large
mold heaters.

Castings of large or medium size and of complex configuration such as

frames, engine cylinders, rolls, large gears and housings are often made
using the dry sand technique. Both ferrous and nonferrous metals are cast
in this type of mold.
Dry Sand Molding
Advantages
Dry sand molds are generally stronger than green sand molds and therefore
can withstand much additional handling.
Better dimension control than if they were molded in green sand.
The improved quality of the sand mixture due to the removal of moisture can
result in a much smoother finish on the castings than if made in green sand
molds. Where molds are properly washed and sprayed with refractory
coatings, the casting finish is further improved.
Disadvantages
This type of molding is much more expensive than green sand molding and is
not a high-production process. Correct baking (drying) times are essential.
Metal Casting Techniques

Precision Molding and Casting Processes -

These are molding processes that produce castings with an improved surface finish, while
providing excellent detail, with a higher degree of dimensional accuracy.

Die Casting
Squeeze casting or Squeeze Forming
Investment Casting (Lost Wax)
The "V" Process
Shaw Process - ceramic molding
Hitchiner Process (CLA, CLAS, CLAV)
Metal Casting Techniques - Die Casting
This process is used for producing large volumes of zinc, aluminum and magnesium castings of intricate shapes.
The essential feature of diecasting is the use of permanent metal dies into which the molten metal is injected
under high pressure (normally 5000 psi or more).
The rate of production of diecasting depends largely on the complexity of design, the section thickness of the
casting, and the properties of the cast metal. Great care must be taken with the design and gating of the mold to
avoid high-pressure porosity to which this process is prone.
Advantages
Cost of castings is relatively low with high volumes.
High degree of design complexity and accuracy.
Excellent smooth surface finish.
Suitable for relatively low melting point metals (1600F/871C) like lead, zinc, aluminum, magnesium and some
copper alloys.
High production rates.
Disadvantages
Limits on the size of castings - most suitable for small castings up to about 75 lb.
Equipment and die costs are high.
Metal Casting Techniques - Squeeze Casting
Squeeze Casting combines the processes and advantages of Gravity Casting and Forging. Squeeze Casting
uses metal permanent molds and it has a material tank.
The pouring process uses a cylinder at the bottom of the material tank to push the material into molds.
This pouring process is similar as Gravity Casting, but Gravity Casting uses gravity instead of a cylinder to
load the mold.
After material goes into the mold, the cylinder of the material tank continues loading pressure, about 300
tons, until the end of the casting cycle.
When the material in the mold starts to cool down, it will begin to shrink. The cylinder will continue the
loading pressure to push more metal into the mold, making the casting more solid and with greater detail.
This makes the process similar to Forging. The casting quality of Squeeze Casting is close to Forging.
Process

Liquid metal is introduced into an open die, just as in a closed die forging process. The dies are then closed.
During the final stages of closure, the liquid is displaced into the further parts of the die. No great fluidity
requirements are demanded of the liquid, since the displacements are small. Thus forging alloys, which
generally have poor fluidities which normally precludes the casting route, can be cast by this process
Metal Casting Techniques - Investment Casting or Lost Wax

Investment Casting is the process of completely investing a three-dimensional pattern in all of its
dimensions to produce a one-piece destructible mold into which molten metal will be poured. A
refractory slurry flows around the wax pattern, providing excellent detail.

The wax patterns are assembled on a "tree" and invested with a ceramic slurry. The tree is then immersed
into a fluidized bed of refractory particles to form the first layer of the ceramic shell. The mold is allowed
to dry and the process repeated with coarser material until sufficient thickness has been built up to
withstand the impact of hot metal.

When the slurry hardens, the wax pattern is melted out and recovered and the mold or ceramic shell is
oven cured prior to casting.

Most materials can be cast by this process but the economics indicate that fairly high volume is necessary
and the shape and complexity of the castings should be such that savings are made by eliminating
machining.
Metal Casting Techniques - Investment Casting or Lost Wax
Advantages
Excellent accuracy and flexibility of design.
Useful for casting alloys that are difficult to machine.
Exceptionally fine finish.
Suitable for large or small quantities of parts.
Almost unlimited intricacy.
Suitable for most ferrous / non-ferrous metals.
No flash to be removed or parting line tolerances.

Disadvantages
Limitations on size of casting.
Higher casting costs make it important to take full advantage of the process to eliminate all machining
operations.
Metal Casting Techniques - Vacuum ("V") Process Molding
This adaptation of vacuum forming permits molds to be made out of free-
flowing, dry, unbonded sand without using high-pressure squeezing, jolting,
slinging or blowing as a means of compaction.
The V-process is dimensionally consistent, economical, environmentally and
ecologically acceptable, energy thrifty, versatile and clean.
Because the V-Process uses clean, dry unbonded sand, you can forget
about mullers and mixers, and costly sand reclamation and reconditioning
equipment.
Most V-Process users require only sand cooling and transportation, dust
collection and simple screening to remove tramp metals.
Process
The molding medium is clean, dry, unbonded silica sand, which is consolidated
through application of a vacuum or negative pressure to the body of the sand.
The patterns must be mounted on plates or boards and each board is perforated
with vent holes connected to a vacuum chamber behind the board.
A preheated sheet of highly flexible plastic material is draped over the pattern and
board. When the vacuum is applied, the sheet clings closely to the pattern
contours.
Each part of the molding box is furnished with its own vacuum chamber
connected to a series of hollow perforated flask bars.
The pattern is stripped from the mold and the two halves assembled and cast with
the vacuum on.
Advantages
Superb finishes.
Good dimensional accuracy.
No defects from gas holes.
All sizes and shapes of castings are possible from thin walls to thick sections, or from castings
weighing ounces to several tons. Sand thermal conductivity is lower and metal fluidity is
improved. Solidification time is slower. In addition, zero draft designs are common, and can
reduce clean up and rough machining operations.
Most ferrous / non-ferrous metals can be used.
Low operating cost - You not only save on the cost of sand binders but all of the cost of sand
mixing, testing and disposal/ reclamation. Even pattern life is extended because the sand never
touches the pattern and it is never subjected to the rigors of a conventional molding machine.
Finally, V-Process produces castings with fewer imperfections and less scrap.
Disadvantages
The V-process requires plated pattern equipment.
Metal Casting Techniques - Ceramic Molding (Shaw Process)
Ceramic molding can be accomplished through two diverse techniques:
True ceramic molding.
Ethyl silicate slurry molding (also known as the Shaw process, Avnet-Shaw, Osborn-Shaw
and the Dean process ).
Ceramics are materials which are made from a clay base and contain various oxides and
ingredients other than sand. The raw clays are calcined or fired at high temperatures
and are then blended, mixed with water, formed into mold components, and then fired.
In true ceramic molding, the refractory grain can be bonded with calcium or ammonium
phosphates. The preferred methods for producing ceramic molds is the dry pressing
method in which molds are made by pressing the clay mixture containing 4-9%
moisture in dies under a pressure of 1-10 ton/sq in. After pressing, molds are stripped
from the dies and then fired at temperatures between 1650-2400F (899C and 1316C).
 Ceramic Mold Process
Compared with Investment Casting

When compared to investment castings the Investment

Casting
Ceramic Mold Casting
Requirements Casting
following apply: 40- 125
Surface smoothness 80-125 microinch
microinch
Excellent, approaching but not
Intricacy Excellent equalling precision castings
Thinness of metal Excellent Excellent
sections
Tolerances Excellent Good to excellent
Minimum Machining greatly reduced,
Machining costs machining sometimes but not always
required eliminated
Longest
Lead time Very short lead time
lead time
Restricted Casting size not restricted except
Adaptability to various
to small above 100 lb for the top size of
sizes castings the casting
Adaptability to various No No limitations
metals and alloys limitations

Very high Very low cost; job-bin wood or

Pattern costs cost metal patterns may be used

Prototype adaptability High cost

Metal Casting Techniques - Hitchiner Process (CLA, CLAS, CLAV)

The Hitchiner casting process utilizes a counter gravity (vacuum) system to fill the mold cavity with molten metal. The
molds are usually produced using a resin-bonded shell and/or a chemically bonded sand molding process. The design
of the mold provides small diameter feeders through the drag half of the mold to pull the metal up into the mold
cavity.
The mold is partially submerged into the metal bath and the metal is drawn into the mold cavities. The vacuum
system draws the decomposition gases out of the mold cavity as they are generated during the pouring of the mold.
Process capabilities include the ability to produce light section castings in a variety of alloys normally not castable by
other processes. The Hitchiner process also offer the capability of making castings with good dimensional accuracy
and casting finish normally only obtainable in the lost wax/investment casting process. Casting integrity is excellent in
alloy steels and nickel alloys with designs not normally castable by other processes. Castings of up to 100 lb in steel
and high alloys including iron, nickel and cobalt-base metals.
Advantages
High casting yield
Good casting definition
Less casting cleaning is required compared to green sand, low sand and gas inclusions
Low scrap.
Disadvantages
The process only offers low- to medium-volume production capabilities.
Manufacturing: Metal Forming
Overview
In Metal Forming, a simple metallic geometry is transformed into a
complex one through plastic deformation. Tools or dies impart
pressure on the material to transfer the desired geometry through the
tool/material interface.
Metal Forming Processes

Roll Extrusion & Sheet Metal Powder

Forging
Forming Drawing Forming Metallurgy
Roll Forming
Ring Rolling Rolling is a forming process which reduces the cross-sectional area of the
incoming metal stock or produces a new cross-section of the material at the exit while
improving its mechanical properties through the use of rotating rolls.

The process can be carried out hot, warm, or cold, depending on the application and the
material involved. Rolling of blooms, slabs, billets, plates is usually done at temperatures
above the recrystallization temperature (hot rolling). Sheet and strip often are rolled cold
in order to maintain close thickness tolerances.

Specific Processes-

Flat Rolling
Thread Rolling
Seamless Tubing
Continuous Casting and Rolling
Forging

Forging is controlled, plastic deformation or working of metals into predetermined shapes by

means of pressure or impact blows, or a combination of both. Forging improves the quality of
the metal, refines the grain structure and increases strength and toughness. Forgings can offer
decisive cost advantages, especially in high-volume production runs. Forged parts are generally
near-net shapes, making better use of material, generating little scrap, and requiring less
machining and labor time. Properly designed, a forging can replace an entire multicomponent
assembly.

Specific Processes-

Cold Forging
Impression Die Forging
Open Die Forging
Closed Die Forging
Seamless Rolled Ring Forging
Extrusion
-is a plastic deformation process in which material is forced under pressure to flow through one or more
die orifices to produce products of the desired configuration. This process provides a practical forming
method for producing a limitless variety of parallel-surfaced shapes to meet almost any design
requirement. Other advantages include improving the microstructure and physical properties of the
material, maintaining close tolerances, material conservation, economical production, and increased
design flexibility.

Drawing is a process of cold forming a flat precut metal blank into a hollow vessel without excessive
wrinkling, thinning, or fracturing. The various forms produced may be cylindrical or box shaped, with
straight or tapered sides or a combination of straight, tapered, and curved sides. The parts may vary
from 1/4" (6mm) diam parts or smaller to aircraft or automotive parts large enough to require
mechanical handling equipment.
Specific Processes-

Aluminum Extrusions
Cold extrusion
Drawing
Hydrostatic extrusion
Impact extrusion
Sheetmetal Forming

The stamping of parts from sheet metal is a straightforward operation in

which the metal is shaped or cut through deformation by shearing,
punching, drawing, stretching, bending, coining, etc.
Production rates are high and secondary machining is generally not
required to produce finished parts within tolerances.
This versatile process lends itself to low costs, since complex parts can be
made in a few operations at high production rates.
Sheet metal has a high strength-to-weight factor, enabling production of
parts that are lightweight and strong.

Specific Sheetmetal Forming Processes-

Sheet Metal Forming Processes

Deep Draw Electro-hydraulic F Electro-magnetic F Explosive Fine Blanki Hydro-formin Magnetic Pulse
ing orming orming Forming ng g Forming

Metal Spin Peen Forming Press Brake Formin Shearing Stretch Fo Superplastic Tube Bending
ning g rming Forming
Powder Metallurgy

Powder metallurgy, or P/M, is a highly developed method of manufacturing

reliable ferrous and nonferrous parts.
Made by mixing elemental or alloy powders and compacting the mixture in a
die, the resultant shapes are then sintered or heated in a controlled-
atmosphere furnace to metallurgically bond the particles.
Basically a 'chipless' metalworking process, P/M typically uses more than 97%
of the starting raw material in the finished part. Because of this, P/M is an
energy and materials conserving process.
The P/M process is cost effective in producing simple or complex parts at or
very close to final dimensions at production rates that can range from a few
hundred to several thousand parts per hour.
As a result, only minor, if any, machining is required. P/M parts also can be
sized for closer dimensional control that essentially eliminates secondary
fabrication steps and/or coined for both higher density and strength.
REFERENCES:

http://www.engineershandbook.com
Schey, John A., Introduction to Manufacturing Processes, 3rd Edition
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Methods, Processes &
Equipment involved in
Manufacturing (Metals)
Obias, Cherry Mae V.
Pura II, John Dennis C.
Ignacio, Fernand Lui B.