Subject Contents

1. Fuel and Combustion

2. Steam Generator/ Boiler

3. Nozzles

4. Steam Turbines

5. Gas Turbines

6. Air Compressors
Recommended Books

i. Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering Technologists

By: T.D. Eastop & A. McConkey

ii. Basic Thermodynamics

By: Reynar Jeol

iii. Thermodynamics An Engineering Approach

By: Yunus A. Cengel & M.A. Boles

iv. Thermodynamics for Engineers

BY: Bhalchandra V. Karlekar

Reference Books

i Text book of Thermal Engineering

By: R.S. Khurmi

ii Thermal Engineering
By: Sarao
What is a Fuel ?
Any material that can be burned to release thermal energy is
called a Fuel.

Most familiar fuels consist primarily of hydrogen and carbon.

They are called hydrocarbon fuels and are denoted by the

general formula CnHm.

Type of Fuels

i. Liquid (gasoline)
ii. Solid (coal)
iii. Gas (natural gas)
Liquid Fuels
Furnace oil
Light diesel oil
Petrol / Gasoline
Kerosene
Ethanol
LSHS (low sulphur heavy stock)

Liquid Fuels and Calorific value

Fuel Oil Gross Calorific Value (kCal/kg)
Kerosene 11,100
Diesel Oil 10,800
L.D.O 10,700
Furnace Oil 10,500
LSHS 10,600
Contamination of Liquid Fuel
1. Sulphur content:
1. Depends on source of crude oil and less on the refining process
2. Furnace oil: 2-4 % sulphur
Effects: Sulphuric acid causes corrosion

2. Ash content
Inorganic material in fuel
Typically 0.03 - 0.07%
Effects: Corrosion of burner tips and damage to materials /
equipments at high temperature
3. Carbon residue
Tendency of oil to deposit a carbonaceous solid residue on a hot
surface
Residual oil: >1% carbon residue

4. Water content
Normally low in furnace oil supplied (<1% at refinery)
Effects: Can damage furnace surface and impact flame
Solid Fuels

Coal classification
Anthracite: hard and geologically the oldest
Bituminous
Lignite: soft coal
Further classification:
semi- anthracite,
semi-bituminous, and
sub-bituminous
Physical properties
Heating or calorific value (GCV)
Moisture content
Volatile matter
Ash

Chemical properties
Chemical constituents: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur

Solid Fuel Contents

1. Moisture content
0.5 to 10% of moisture in fuel
Effects:
Reduces heating value of fuel
Weight loss from heated and then cooled powdered raw
2. Volatile matter
Methane, hydrocarbons, hydrogen, CO, other
Typically 25-35%
Easy ignition with high volatile matter
Weight loss from heated then cooled crushed coal

3. Ash
Impurity that will not burn (5-40%)
Important for design of furnace
Ash = residue after combustion

4. Fixed carbon
Fixed carbon = 100 (moisture + volatile matter + ash)
Carbon + hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen residues
Heat generator during combustion
Analysis of Coal
1. Proximate analysis of coal
Determines only fixed carbon, volatile matter, moisture and ash
Useful to find out heating value (GCV)
Simple analysis equipment

2. Ultimate analysis of coal

Determines all coal component elements: carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, sulphur, other
Useful for furnace design
(e.g flame temperature, flue duct design)
Laboratory analysis
Gaseous Fuels
Classification of gaseous fuels
1. Fuels naturally found in nature
Natural gas
Methane from coal mines
2. Fuel gases made from solid fuel
Gases derived from coal
Gases derived from waste and biomass
From other industrial processes
3. Gases made from petroleum
Liquefied Petroleum gas (LPG)
Refinery gases
Gases from oil gasification
4. Gases from some fermentation
 Comparing of Fuels
Constituents Fuel Oil Coal Natural Gas

Carbon 84 41.11 74
Hydrogen 12 2.76 25

Sulphur 3 0.41 -
Oxygen 1 9.89 Trace
Nitrogen Trace 1.22 0.75
Ash Trace 38.63 -
Water Trace 5.98 -
Advantages of Gaseous Fuel
They are free from all solid and liquid impurities.
Simplest burners systems
Burner systems require least maintenance
Environmental benefits: lowest GHG and other emissions
They do not produce smoke and ash.
They undergo complete combustion with minimum air supply.
A good fuel should have:
Low ignition point
High calorific value
Freely burn with high efficiency, once it is ignited
Not produce harmful gases
Produce least quantity of smoke and gases
Economical , easy to store and convenient for transportation
Calorific Value of Fuels
It is amount of heat given out by complete combustion of one kg of
fuel, solid, liquid or gas.
It is expressed in terms of kJ/kg of fuel.

Types of calorific value

i. Gross/higher calorific value (H.C.V)
ii. Net/lower calorific value (L.C.V)

i. Gross/higher calorific value:

Total amount of heat produce by one kg of fuel
ii. Net/lower calorific value:
Net amount of heat used to produce steam per kg of heat
L.C.V = H.C.V Heat of steam formed during combustion