Signalized Intersections

Winter 2006
CEE 320

CEE 320
Steve Muench
 Outline

1. Key Definitions
2. Baseline Assumptions
3. Control Delay
4. Signal Analysis
a. D/D/1
b. Random Arrivals
c. LOS Calculation
d. Optimization
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 Key Definitions (1)
Cycle Length (C)
The total time for a signal to complete a cycle
Phase
The part of the signal cycle allocated to any combination
of traffic movements receiving the ROW simultaneously
during one or more intervals
Green Time (G)
The duration of the green indication of a given
movement at a signalized intersection
Red Time (R)
The period in the signal cycle during which, for a given
phase or lane group, the signal is red
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 Key Definitions (2)
Change Interval (Y)
Yellow time
The period in the signal cycle during which, for a given
phase or lane group, the signal is yellow
Clearance Interval (AR)
All red time
The period in the signal cycle during which all
approaches have a red indication
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 Key Definitions (3)
Start-up Lost Time (l1)
Time used by the first few vehicles in a queue while reacting
to the initiation of the green phase and accelerating.
2 seconds is typical.
Clearance Lost Time (l2)
Time between signal phases during which an intersection is
not used by traffic. 2 seconds is typical.
Lost Time (tL)
Time when an intersection is not effectively used by any
approach. 4 seconds is typical.
tL = l1 + l2
Total Lost Time (L)
Total lost time per cycle during which the intersection is not
used by any movement.
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 Key Definitions (4)

Effective Green Time (g)

Time actually available for movement
g = G + Y + AR tL
Extension of Effective Green Time (e)
The amount of the change and clearance interval at the
end of a phase that is usable for movement of vehicles
Effective Red Time (r)
Time during which a movement is effectively not
permitted to move.
r = R + tL
r=Cg
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 Key Definitions (5)

Saturation Flow Rate (s)

Maximum flow that could pass through an intersection if
100% green time was allocated to that movement.
s = 3600/h
Approach Capacity (c)
Saturation flow times the proportion of effective green
c = s g/C
Peak Hour Factor (PHF)
The hourly volume during the maximum-volume hour of
the day divided by the peak 15-minute flow rate within
the peak hour; a measure of traffic demand fluctuation
within the peak hour.
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 Key Definitions (6)

Flow Ratio
The ratio of actual flow rate (v) to saturation flow rate (s)
for a lane group at an intersection
Lane Group
A set of lanes established at an intersection approach
for separate analysis
Critical Lane Group
The lane group that has the highest flow ratio (v/s) for a
given signal phase
Critical Volume-to-Capacity Ratio (Xc)
The proportion of available intersection capacity used
by vehicles in critical lane groups
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In terms of v/c and NOT v/s

from Highway Capacity Manual 2000
 Baseline Assumptions

D/D/1 queuing
Approach arrivals < departure capacity
(no queue exists at the beginning/end of a
cycle)
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 Quantifying Control Delay

Two approaches
Deterministic (uniform) arrivals (Use D/D/1)
Probabilistic (random) arrivals (Use empirical equations)

Total delay can be expressed as

Total delay in an hour (vehicle-hours, person-hours)
Average delay per vehicle (seconds per vehicle)
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 D/D/1 Signal Analysis (Graphical)
Departure
Rate Arrival
Rate
Vehicles

Queue dissipation

Total vehicle delay per cycle

Maximum delay
Maximum queue

Time
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Red Green Red Green Red Green

 D/D/1 Signal Analysis Numerical

1.0

Time to queue dissipation after the start of effective green

r
t0
1
Proportion of the cycle with a queue

r t0
Pq
c
Proportion of vehicles stopped

r t0 r t0 r t0 t0 t0
Ps Pq Ps
r g c r g c c
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 D/D/1 Signal Analysis Numerical

1.0

Maximum number of vehicles in a queue

Qm r
Total delay per cycle

r 2
Dt
21
Average vehicle delay per cycle
r 2 1 r2
Dt
21 c 2c1
Maximum delay of any vehicle (assume FIFO)
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dm r
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 Signal Analysis Random Arrivals

Websters Formula (1958) - empirical

1/ 3
c
2
x
d' d 0.65 2 x 2 5( g / c )
2 1 x
d = avg. veh. delay assuming random arrivals
d = avg. veh. delay assuming uniform arrivals (D/D/1)
x = ratio of arrivals to departures (c/g)
g = effective green time (sec)
c = cycle length (sec)
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 Signal Analysis Random Arrivals

Allsops Formula (1972) - empirical

9 x2
d ' d
10 2 1 x

d = avg. veh delay assuming random arrivals

d = avg. veh delay assuming uniform arrivals
(D/D/1)
x = ratio of arrivals to departures (c/g)
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 Definition Level of Service (LOS)

Chief measure of quality of service

Describes operational conditions within a traffic
stream
Does not include safety
Different measures for different facilities
Six levels of service (A through F)
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 Signalized Intersection LOS

Based on control delay per vehicle

How long you wait, on average, at the stop light
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from Highway Capacity Manual 2000

 Typical Approach

Split control delay into three parts

Part 1: Delay calculated assuming uniform arrivals (d1).
This is essentially a D/D/1 analysis.
Part 2: Delay due to random arrivals (d2)
Part 3: Delay due to initial queue at start of analysis time
period (d3). Often assumed zero.

d d1 PF d 2 d3
d = Average signal delay per vehicle in s/veh
PF = progression adjustment factor
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d1, d2, d3 = as defined above

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 Uniform Delay (d1)

g
0.5C 1
d1 C
g
1 min 1, X
C

d1 = delay due to uniform arrivals (s/veh)

C = cycle length (seconds)
g = effective green time for lane group (seconds)
X = v/c ratio for lane group
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 Incremental Delay (d2)
8kIX
d 2 900T X 1 X 1 2

cT
d2 = delay due to random arrivals (s/veh)

T = duration of analysis period (hours). If the analysis is based on the

peak 15-min. flow then T = 0.25 hrs.
k = delay adjustment factor that is dependent on signal controller mode.
For pretimed intersections k = 0.5. For more efficient intersections k
< 0.5.
I = upstream filtering/metering adjustment factor. Adjusts for the effect of
an upstream signal on the randomness of the arrival pattern. I = 1.0
for completely random. I < 1.0 for reduced variance.
c = lane group capacity (veh/hr)
Winter 2006

X = v/c ratio for lane group

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 Initial Queue Delay (d3)

Applied in cases where X > 1.0 for the

analysis period
Vehicles arriving during the analysis period
will experience an additional delay because
there is already an existing queue
When no initial queue
d3 = 0
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 Control Optimization

Conflicting Operational Objectives

minimize vehicle delay
minimize vehicle stops
minimize lost time
major vs. minor service (progression)
pedestrian service
reduce accidents/severity
reduce fuel consumption
Air pollution
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 The Art of Signal Optimization

Long Cycle Length

High capacity (reduced lost time)
High delay on movements that are not served
Pedestrian movements? Number of Phases?

Short Cycle Length

Reduced capacity (increased lost time)
Reduced delay for any given movement
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 Minimum Cycle Length

L Xc
C min n
v
X c
i 1 s ci

Cmin = estimated minimum cycle length (seconds)

L = total lost time per cycle (seconds), 4 seconds per
phase is typical
(v/s)ci = flow ratio for critical lane group, i (seconds)
Xc = critical v/c ratio for the intersection
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 Optimum Cycle Length Estimation

1.5L 5
C opt n
v
1
i 1 s ci

Copt = estimated optimum cycle length (seconds) to

minimize vehicle delay
L = total lost time per cycle (seconds), 4 seconds per
phase is typical
(v/s)ci = flow ratio for critical lane group, i (seconds)
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 Green Time Estimation

v C
gi
s i X i

g = effective green time for phase, i (seconds)

(v/s)i = flow ratio for lane group, i (seconds)
C = cycle length (seconds)
Xi = v/c ratio for lane group i
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 Pedestrian Crossing Time
L N ped
G p 3.2 2.7 for WE 10 ft.
Sp WE

0.27 N ped for WE 10 ft.

L
G p 3.2
Sp
Gp = minimum green time required for pedestrians (seconds)
L = crosswalk length (ft)
Sp = average pedestrian speed (ft/s) often assumed 4 ft/s
WE = effective crosswalk width (ft)
3.2 = pedestrian startup time (seconds)
Nped = number of pedestrians crossing during an interval
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 Effective Width (WE)
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from Highway Capacity Manual 2000

 Example
An intersection operates using a SB
simple 3-phase design as
pictured.

WB

EB
Phase Lane Saturation Flows
group
1 SB 3400 veh/hr
2 NB 3400 veh/hr
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3 EB 1400 veh/hr
NB
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WB 1400 veh/hr
 Example
What is the sum of the flow ratios for the critical lane groups?
What is the total lost time for a signal cycle assuming 2 seconds of
clearance lost time and 2 seconds of startup lost time per phase?

SB

30 150
400

30
EB 200

300 WB
20

1000
100 50
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NB
 Example
Calculate an optimal signal timing (rounded up to the nearest 5
seconds) using Websters formula.

1.5L 5
Copt n
1 v s ci
i 1
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 Example
Determine the green times allocation using v/c equalization.
Assume the extension of effective green time = 2 seconds and
startup lost time = 2 seconds.

n
v
C
i 1 s i
Xc
CL

v C
gi
s i X i
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 Example
What is the intersection Level of Service (LOS)? Assume in all
cases that PF = 1.0, k = 0.5 (pretimed intersection), I = 1.0 (no
upstream signal effects).

d v i i d v k k
dA i
dI k

v i
i v k
k
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 Example
Is this signal adequate for pedestrians? A pedestrian count showed
5 pedestrians crossing the EB and WB lanes on each side of the
intersection and 10 pedestrians crossing the NB and SB
crosswalks on each side of the intersection. Lanes are 12 ft. wide.
The effective crosswalk widths are all 10 ft.

0.27 N ped for WE 10 ft

L
G p 3.2
Sp
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 FYI NOT TESTABLE

Signal Installation: Warrants

Manual of Uniform Traffic Control

Devices (MUTCD)
Apply these rules to determine if a
signal is warranted at an
intersection
If warrants are met, doesnt mean
signals or control is mandatory
8 major warrants
Multiple warrants usually required
for recommending control
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http://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov/
 FYI NOT TESTABLE

Intersection Control Type

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from Highway Capacity Manual 2000

 Primary References

Mannering, F.L.; Kilareski, W.P. and Washburn, S.S. (2003). Principles

of Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis, Third Edition (Draft).
Chapter 7

Transportation Research Board. (2000). Highway Capacity Manual.

National Research Council, Washington, D.C.
Winter 2006
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