INTRODUCTION TO

RESEARCH

CHAPTER 1
 Objectives

Describe what research is and how it is defined

Distinguish between applied and basic research, giving
examples, and discussing why they fall into one or the
other of the two categories
Explain why managers should know about research
Discuss what managers should or should not do in
order to interact most effectively with researchers
Identify and fully discuss specific situations in which a
manager would be better off using an internal research
team, and when an external research team would be
more advisable, giving reasons for the decision
 Definition - Research

A Process
Formal, systematic, intensive process of scientific
method
Careful inquiry or examination
Systematic, controlled, empirical and critical
investigation
Unusually stubborn and persisting effort to think
straight (Research without important ideas is busy
work)
The process of finding solutions to a problem after a
thorough study and analysis of the situational factors.
 Definition Research

Aims of Research
Discover new information or relationships; to expand
and to verify existing knowledge
Gathers new knowledge; discovery of general principles
Provide new knowledge
Investigation of hypothetical propositions about the
presumed relations among natural phenomena. End
sought by science (research) is theory
To solve problems and for decision making purposes
(business research)
 Definition Research

Aims of Research
Gage (offer):
- Increase our power to understand, predict,
control outcomes
- Predict an event by relating it empirically to
antecedents in time
- Control an event by manipulating the
independent variables to which it is functionally
related
 Definition Research

How of research
Define the problem areas
Identify specifically the problems which need to be
studied and resolved
Gather information, analyze data and determine the
factors associated with the problem
Solve the problem by taking the necessary
corrective measures
 Definition Business Research

Business research as an
organized, systematic, data-based, critical,
objective, scientific inquiry or investigation
into a specific problem,

undertaken with the

purpose of find answers or solutions.
 Definition Business Research

Quantitative Research
structured questions usually questionnaires
based on certain scale and analyzed
statistically

Qualitative Research
open ended questions in a questionnaire,
interviews, observation, or information
gathered from various sources.
 Definition Business Research

Basic Research, Fundamental or Pure Research

for the purpose of contributing to existing
body of knowledge

Applied Research
to solve a current problem.
 What are some typical examples of
research areas?
In Accounting?

In Finance?

In Management

In Marketing?
 Managers & Research

Identify and effectively solve minor problems in the

work setting
Know how to discriminate good from bad research
Appreciate and be constantly aware of the multiple
influences and multiple effects of factors impinging on a
situation
Take calculated risk in decision making, knowing full
well the probabilities associated with the different
possible outcomes
Prevent possible vested interests from exercising their
influence in a situation.
 Managers & Research ?

Relate to hiring researchers and consultants more

effectively
Combine experience with scientific knowledge
while making decisions
 Internal vs. External /Consultants
Research ?

Discuss the advantages /disadvantages of using/hiring

internal /external consultants to conduct companys
research
 Ethics and Business Research

Code of conduct and societal norm of behavior

Data collection
Data analysis
Reporting
Dissemination of information on the Internet

Business Ethics
Journal of Business Ethics
Business Ethics Quartery
 Internal Researchers
15

Advantages:
Better acceptance from staff

Knowledge about organization

Would be an integral part of implementation and evaluation of

the research recommendations.
Disadvantages
Less fresh ideas

Power politics could prevail

Possibly not valued as expert by staff

 External Researchers
16

Advantages
Divergent and convergent thinking
Experience from several situations in different organizations
Better technical training, usually

Disadvantages
Takes time to know and understand the organization
Rapport and cooperation from staff not easy
Not available for evaluation and implementation
Costs
Scientific Investigation

CHAPTER 2
 Objectives

Explain what is meant by scientific investigation, giving

examples of both scientific and non scientific
investigations
Explain the eight hallmarks of science
Briefly explain why research in the organizational
behavior and management areas cannot be completely
scientific
Describe the building blocks of science
Discuss the seven steps of the hypothethico-deductive
method, using an example of your own
Describe the processes of induction and deduction
Appreciate the advantages of knowledge about scientific
investigation
 Scientific vs. Non scientific Investigation

Scientific Investigations more objective rather

than subjective, for effective problem solving,
purposive, rigorous, state their findings with
accuracy and confidence

Non scientific research hunches, experience, and

intuition
 Scientific Research

Purposiveness
definite aim or purpose
Rigor
good theoretical base and a carefully thought-out
methodology, carefulness, scrupulousness and the
degree of exactitude in research investigations
Testability
Testing logically developed hypotheses / the data
support the educated conjectures or hypotheses that are
developed.
Replicability
Can be repeated with the same results
 Scientific Research

Precision
Closeness of findings to reality based on a sample
Confidence
Probability that our estimations are correct
Objectivity
Based on the facts of findings derived from actual
data /not subjective emotional values
Generalizability
Scope of applicability of the research findings in
one organizational setting to other organizational
setting
 Scientific Research

Parsimony
The most relevant, manageable factors should be
considered when conducting research
 The hypothetical-deductive method

Identify a broad problem area

Define the problem statement
Develop hypotheses
Determine measures
Data collection
Data analysis
Interpretation of data
 Reasoning

Reasoning is the process of coming to a

conclusion; how did our brains figure out what we
believe
There are two basic ways we reason
Inductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning
 Review of the hypothetical-deductive
method

Deductive reasoning
- general to specific

Inductive reasoning
- specific to general conclusion
 Induction
Inductive reasoning is the process of arriving at a
conclusion based on a set of observations
Induction is a process where we observe details of a
certain phenomena and based on the evidences we
have collected and analysed, we arrive at
conclusions
We build theories from data we collect and analyze
 Induction
Induce means to add up (individual evidences add up to
become a theory)
Inductive research begins its research process with studying
specific data, which is then used to develop (induce) general
explanation (a theory) to account for the data
For example, throughout my life, every crow I come across is
black in color; therefore, I induce that all crows are black in
color
The power of inductive reasoning does not lie in its ability to
prove (in fact, it cannot be used to provide proof); inductive
reasoning is valuable because it allows us to form ideas
 Deduction
Deduct means to reduce
use a general theory to develop a hypothesis
a hypothesis is unique example of a general theory
Evidence to support a hypothesis strengthen a general theory
Deduction is the process by which we arrive at a
reasoned conclusion by logically generalizing from a
known fact
A type of research in which a specific expectation is
deduced from a general theoretical premise and then
tested with data that have been collected for their
purpose
A deductive researcher states her expectations in
advance and then designs a fair test of those expectations
 Deduction
It is the theory that decides what can be observed
Albert Einstein

Generalization of scientific laws

(patterns in observation)
Theory

Falsifiable statement Hypothesis

derived from theory that Collect
can be tested empirical data
Observation

Confirm theory not false Confirmation

thereby strengthening the
possibility of theory being true
 Induction

Plausible explanation for

pattern observed
Theory
Falsifiable statement
describing pattern
Tentative
Hypothesis
Find pattern in
observation
Pattern

Confirmation

Collect empirical data

 Deduction
The following are examples of how deductive
researchers use theory and hypothesis to do research

Generalization Hypothesis
Punishment will reduce the Spouse abusers who are
propensity to commit crime arrested and punished are less
likely to repeat abuse
Extrinsic rewards (such as Rise in salary will not increase
money) will not increase employee motivation
motivation to work
Quantitative verses Qualitative Research

Research methodology involves epistemology of

doing research and its influence of what methods to
use
Each research method available to researchers is
created and designed based on a distinguished belief
of how truth and understanding can be established
Is there only one (shared) Reality or each of us creates our
own reality?
Can meaning and what we believe is real be independent
from the researcher?
Quantitative verses Qualitative Research
Qualitative Quantitative
Inductive inquiry Deductive inquiry

Understanding social phenomena Relationships, effects and causes

A-theoretical or Grounded theory Theory based

Holistic inquiry Focused on individual variables

Context specific Context-free

Observer as participant Detached role of researcher

Narrative description Statistical analysis

 Other types of research

Case studies
- Purpose is to explore and to describe, for problem
solving purposes
- Usually qualitative rather than quantitative,
analysis of documented case studies, interviews,
observation

Action research
- Immediate application type of research to solve
current problems