Chapter 13

The Spinal Cord,

Spinal Nerves, and
Spinal Reflexes

Lecture Presentation by
Lee Ann Frederick
University of Texas at Arlington

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Chapter 13: Overview

1. The spinal cord: anatomy and function

2. The spinal meninges: layers surrounding the spinal cord
3. Functions of gray and white matter in the spine
4. The spinal nerve
5. Neuronal pools
6. Neural reflexes
7. Reflex interactions and complex behaviors
8. Control and modification of reflexes

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 CHAPTER 14: The Brain

Sensory cranial nerves

Reflex
cranial nerves
Effectors
receptors (sensory)
centers (motor) Muscles
(brain)

CHAPTER 13: The Spinal Cord

Glands
Reflex
Sensory spinal nerves spinal nerves
(sensory) centers
receptors (motor)
(spine) Adipose tissue

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 13-2 Spinal Cord T12

L1

L2
Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord L3

About 18 inches (45 cm) long L4

L5
1/2 inch (14 mm) wide S1

S2
Ends between vertebrae L1 and L2 S3
S4
Bilateral symmetry S5
Co1
Grooves divide the spinal cord
Posterior median sulcus (posterior)
Anterior median fissure
(deeper groove on anterior side)

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 13-2 Spinal Cord

Enlargements of the Spinal Cord

Caused by:
Amount of gray matter in segment
Involvement with sensory and motor nerves of limbs
1. Cervical enlargement
Nerves of shoulders and upper limbs
2. Lumbar enlargement
Nerves of pelvis and lower limbs

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 13-2 Spinal Cord

Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

The distal end
Conus medullaris
Thin, conical spinal cord below lumbar enlargement
Cauda equina
Nerve roots extending below conus medullaris
Filum terminale
Thin thread of fibrous tissue at end of conus
medullaris
Attaches to coccygeal ligament

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 Posterior median sulcus

White
matter

C1 Central Gray
C2 canal matter
Cervical spinal C3
nerves C4
C5
C6 Cervical
C7 enlargement Anterior median fissure
C8

a The superficial anatomy and orientation of the b Cross sections through

adult spinal cord. The numbers to the left the spinal cord.
identify the spinal nerves and indicate where
the nerve roots leave the vertebral canal.

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 T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7

T8

T9

T10
T3
T11 Lumbar
enlargement
T12
Conus
medullaris
a b

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 Conus medullaris
L1

L2
Inferior
L3 tip of spinal cord

L4
Cauda equina
L5

L1

a b

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 Inferior tip of spinal cord

Cauda equina

S1
S2
S3
S4
S5

S2
Coccygeal Filum terminale
b
nerve (Co1) (in coccygeal
ligament)

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 13-2 Spinal Cord

31 Spinal Cord Segments

Based on vertebrae where spinal nerves originate
Positions of spinal segment and vertebrae change
with age (spinal cord only grows until age 4!)
Cervical nerves
Named for inferior vertebra = C1 C8
All other nerves
Named for superior vertebra

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 13-2 Spinal Cord
Roots
Two branches for each spinal nerve
1. Ventral root
Contains axons of motor neurons (MEV!)
2. Dorsal root
Contains axons of sensory neurons (SAD!)
Dorsal root ganglia
Contain cell bodies of sensory neurons

The Spinal Nerve

Each side of spine
Dorsal and ventral roots join to form a spinal nerve
Mixed Nerves (carry both sensory and motor fibers)

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 Dorsal root
ganglion
Ventral root
Spinal nerve Spinal nerve
Dorsal root
Meninges
Pia mater
Arachnoid mater
Dura mater

a A posterior view
of the spinal cord

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 Meninges

Dura mater
Arachnoid mater
ANTERIOR
Subarachnoid Pia mater
space Vertebral
body

Rami
Ventral root of
communicantes
spinal nerve

Ventral ramus

Dorsal ramus

Adipose tissue
in epidural space Denticulate Dorsal root
ligament ganglion

POSTERIOR

b A sectional view through the spinal cord and meninges

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 13-2 Spinal Cord

The Spinal Meninges

Specialized membranes isolate spinal cord from
surroundings
Continuous with cranial meninges
Functions of the spinal meninges include:
Protecting spinal cord
Carrying blood supply

Meningitis
Viral or bacterial infection of meninges

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 13-2 Spinal Cord

The Three Meningeal Layers

1. Dura mater - outer layer of spinal cord
2. Arachnoid mater - middle meningeal layer
3. Pia mater - inner meningeal layer

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 13-2 Spinal Cord
The Dura Mater
Tough and fibrous
Cranially
Fuses with periosteum of occipital bone
Is continuous with cranial dura mater
Caudally
Tapers to dense cord of collagen fibers
Joins filum terminale in coccygeal ligament
The epidural space
Between spinal dura mater and walls of vertebral canal
Contains loose connective and adipose tissue
Anesthetic injection site
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 13-2 Spinal Cord
The Arachnoid Mater
Middle meningeal layer
Arachnoid membrane
Simple squamous epithelia (covers arachnoid mater)

The Interlayer Spaces of Arachnoid Mater

Subdural space
Between arachnoid mater and dura mater
Subarachnoid space
Between arachnoid mater and pia mater
Contains collagen/elastin fiber network (arachnoid
trabeculae)
Filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
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 13-2 Spinal Cord

The Interlayer Spaces of Arachnoid Mater

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
Carries dissolved gases, nutrients, and wastes
Lumbar puncture or spinal tap withdraws CSF

The Pia Mater

Is the innermost meningeal layer
Is a mesh of collagen and elastic fibers
Is bound to underlying neural tissue

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 13-2 Spinal Cord

Structures of the Spinal Cord

Paired denticulate ligaments
Extend from pia mater to dura mater
Stabilize side-to-side movement
Blood vessels
Along surface of spinal pia mater
Within subarachnoid space

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 Spinal cord

Anterior median fissure

Pia mater

Denticulate ligaments

Dorsal root
Ventral root (formed by several
rootlets from 1 cervical segment)

Arachnoid mater
(reflected)

Dura mater (reflected)

Spinal blood vessel

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 13-3 Gray Matter and White Matter

Sectional Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

White matter
Is superficial
Contains myelinated and unmyelinated axons
Gray matter
Surrounds the central canal of spinal cord
Contains neuron cell bodies, neuroglia,
unmyelinated axons
Has projections (gray horns)

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 13-3 Gray Matter and White Matter

Organization of Gray Matter

The gray horns
Posterior gray horns contain somatic and visceral
sensory nuclei (SAD)
Anterior gray horns contain somatic motor nuclei
(MEV)
Lateral gray horns are in thoracic and lumbar
segments; contain visceral motor nuclei
Gray commissures (next to central canal)
Axons that cross from one side of cord to the other
before reaching gray matter

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 13-3 Gray Matter and White Matter
Organization of Gray Matter
The cell bodies of neurons form functional groups
called nuclei
Sensory nuclei - SAD
Dorsal (posterior)
Connect to peripheral receptors
Motor nuclei - MEV
Ventral (anterior)
Connect to peripheral effectors

Control and Location

Sensory or motor nucleus location within the gray
matter determines which body part it controls
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 13-3 Gray Matter and White Matter

Organization of White Matter

Posterior white columns: lie between posterior gray
horns and posterior median sulcus
Anterior white columns: lie between anterior gray
horns and anterior median fissure
Anterior white commissure: area where axons
cross from one side of spinal cord to the other
Lateral white columns: located on each side of spinal
cord between anterior and posterior columns

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 13-3 Gray Matter and White Matter

Organization of White Matter

Tracts or fasciculi
Bundles of axons in white columns
Relay same information in same direction

Ascending tracts
Carry information to brain
Descending tracts
Carry motor commands to spinal cord

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 Posterior white
column

Posterior
gray horn Lateral
Lateral
white gray
column horn
Anterior
gray
horn

Anterior white
a
column
The right half of a sectional view of the spinal cord

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 Functional Organization
of Gray Matter
Posterior
gray The cell bodies of
commissure neurons are organized
into functional groups
called nuclei.
Somatic

Visceral
Sensory nuclei
Visceral
Motor nuclei
Somatic

Anterior white Anterior gray

commissure commissure
a

The left half of a sectional view of the spinal cord

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 POSTERIOR

Posterior gray
commissure

Dura mater

Arachnoid mater
(broken)

Central canal

Anterior gray
commissure

Anterior median
fissure
Pia mater

ANTERIOR

b A micrograph of a transverse section through the spinal cord,

showing major landmarks in and surrounding the cord.
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 13-3 Gray Matter and White Matter

Spinal Cord Summary

Spinal cord has a narrow central canal
Surrounded by gray matter
Containing sensory and motor nuclei
Sensory nuclei are dorsal (SAD)
Motor nuclei are ventral (MEV)

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 13-3 Gray Matter and White Matter

Spinal Cord Summary

Gray matter
Is covered by a thick layer of white matter
White matter
Consists of ascending and descending axons
Organized in columns
Contains axon bundles with specific functions
Spinal cord is so highly organized:
It is possible to predict results of injuries to specific
areas

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 13-4 Spinal Nerves and Plexuses

Anatomy of Spinal Nerves

Each spinal cord segment:
Is connected to a pair of spinal nerves
Each spinal nerve:
Is surrounded by three connective tissue layers
That support structures and contain blood vessels

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 13-4 Spinal Nerves and Plexuses

Three Connective Tissue Layers of Spinal Nerves

1. Epineurium
Outer layer
Dense network of collagen fibers
2. Perineurium
Middle layer
Divides nerve into fascicles (axon bundles)
3. Endoneurium
Inner layer
Surrounds individual axons

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 Blood vessels

Connective Tissue
Layers
Epineurium covering
peripheral nerve
Perineurium (around
one fascicle)

Endoneurium

Schwann cell
Myelinated
axon
Fascicle

a A typical peripheral nerve and

its connective tissue wrappings
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 Blood vessels

Connective Tissue
Layers

Perineurium (around
one fascicle)

Endoneurium

b A scanning electron micrograph showing the

various layers in great detail (SEM 340)
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 13-4 Spinal Nerves and Plexuses

Peripheral Nerves
Interconnecting branches of spinal nerves
Surrounded by connective tissue sheaths

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 13-4 Spinal Nerves and Plexuses

Peripheral Distribution of Spinal Nerves

Spinal nerves
Form lateral to intervertebral foramen
Where dorsal and ventral roots unite
Then branch and form pathways to destination

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 13-4 Spinal Nerves and Plexuses

Peripheral Distribution of Spinal Nerves

Motor nerves
Dorsal and ventral rami
Dorsal ramus
Contains somatic and visceral motor fibers
Innervates the back
Ventral ramus
Larger branch
Innervates ventrolateral structures and limbs

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 13-4 Spinal Nerves and Plexuses

Peripheral Distribution of Spinal Nerves

Motor nerves
The first branch:
White ramus
Carries visceral motor fibers to sympathetic
ganglion of autonomic nervous system
Gray ramus
Unmyelinated nerves
Return from sympathetic ganglion to rejoin
spinal nerve

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 To skeletal Postganglionic fibers to
muscles of smooth muscles,
back glands, etc., of back

2
Spinal nerve:
3
dorsal and ventral Dorsal ramus: supply
roots unite. skin and skeletal
Dorsal root
Dorsal root muscles of the back.
ganglion

4
Ventral ramus: supply the
1
ventrolateral body surface,
Ventral root: axons structures in the body wall, and
of motor neurons. the limbs.

Visceral motor nuclei To skeletal muscles

of body wall, limbs
Somatic motor nuclei
Rami
communicantes Postganglionic fibers
KEY
to smooth muscles,
= Somatic motor and glands of body
commands wall, limbs
Sympathetic
= Visceral motor ganglion 5
commands
White ramus communicans:
Postganglionic fibers to
visceral motor fibers to a nearby
smooth muscles, sympathetic ganglion.
glands, visceral organs
in thoracic cavity
7
Sympathetic 6
Gray ramus communicans:
Preganglionic fibers nerve: innervates postganglionic fibers that innervate
to sympathetic
ganglia innervating structures in the glands and smooth muscles in the
abdominopelvic 1
thoracic cavity.
viscera body wall or limbs.
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 13-4 Spinal Nerves and Plexuses

Peripheral Distribution of Spinal Nerves

Sensory nerves
In addition to motor impulses:
Dorsal, ventral, and white rami also carry sensory
information

Peripheral Neuropathy
Regional loss of sensory or motor function
Due to trauma or compression (e.g. limb fallen
asleep)

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 From interoceptors From exteroceptors, 4
of back proprioceptors of back Dorsal root:
sensory
3 information to
Dorsal ramus: sensory info
from the skin and skeletal spinal cord.
muscles of the back.
Somatic sensory nuclei
2
Ventral ramus: sensory info
from the ventrolateral body
surface, structures in the
body, wall, and the limbs.
Dorsal
From exteroceptors, root
proprioceptors of ganglion
body wall, limbs

From interoceptors
of body wall, limbs
Rami
communicantes
Visceral
KEY
Ventral sensory nuclei
root
= Somatic
sensations
1
= Visceral Sympathetic nerve:
sensations
sensory information from From interceptors
the visceral organs. of visceral organs

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 Dermatomes
NV

- Bilateral region of skin C2C3

- Monitored by specific pair C2

C3 C3
C4

of spinal nerves
T2 C4
C5
T3
T1
T2 T4
T5
(importance: damage/infection T3 C5
T6
T4 T7
T5 T8

of spinal nerve = loss of sensation T6 T9 T2

T2 T7 T10
T8 T11
T12
in corresponding skin region) T9
T10
L1
L2
C6

T1
T11 L4 L 3 C7
C6 T12 L5
L1
S4S3
L2 S2
C8
L3 C8
T1 L1 S5
C7
S1 L5
L4
L2 S2

KEY L5 L3
Spinal cord regions
= Cervical
= Thoracic
S1
= Lumbar
= Sacral
L4

ANTERIOR POSTERIOR
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 13-4 Spinal Nerves and Plexuses

Especially in regions with many muscles to control (upper

and lower limbs), innervation is more complex!

Nerve Plexuses
Complex, interwoven networks of nerve fibers
Formed from blended fibers of ventral rami of
adjacent spinal nerves
Control skeletal muscles of the neck, upper limbs,
and lower limbs

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 13-4 Spinal Nerves and Plexuses

The Four Major Plexuses of Ventral Rami

1. Cervical plexus
2. Brachial plexus
3. Lumbar plexus
4. Sacral plexus

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 C1
Cervical C2
plexus C3
C4
C5
C6
Brachial C7 Phrenic nerve
plexus C8
T1
T2
T3 Axillary nerve
T4
T5
T6
T7 Musculocutaneous
T8
nerve
T9

T10
T11

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 T12

L1 Radial nerve
Lumbar
plexus L2
Ulnar nerve
L3
L4 Median nerve
L5
Sacral S1
plexus S2
S3
S4
S5
Co1

Femoral nerve

Obturator nerve

Pudendal nerve

Sciatic nerve
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 13-4 Spinal Nerves and Plexuses

The Cervical Plexus

Includes ventral rami of spinal nerves C1C5
Innervates neck, thoracic cavity, diaphragmatic
muscles
Major nerve
Phrenic nerve (controls diaphragm!)

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 13-4 Spinal Nerves and Plexuses

The Brachial Plexus

Includes ventral rami of spinal nerves C5T1
Innervates pectoral girdle and upper limbs
Major nerves:
Axillary nerve deltoid and teres minor
Musculocutaneous nerve anterior arm muscles
Median nerve anterior forearm muscles
Radial nerve posterior arm and forearm muscles
Ulnar nerve hand muscles

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 13-4 Spinal Nerves and Plexuses

The Lumbar Plexus

Includes ventral rami of spinal nerves T12L4
Innervates anterior thigh
Major nerves
Femoral nerve anterior thigh muscle
Obturator nerve adductor muscles

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 13-4 Spinal Nerves and Plexuses

The Sacral Plexus

Includes ventral rami of spinal nerves L4S4
Innervates posterior thigh, leg, and foot
Major nerves
Pudendal nerve pelvic floor
Sciatic nerve thigh, leg, and foot
Two branches of the sciatic nerve:
1. Fibular nerve - anterolateral leg & foot
2. Tibial nerve - posterior thigh, posterior leg, foot

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 Pudendal nerve

Sciatic nerve

Tibial nerve

Common fibular nerve

d Nerves of the sacral plexus,

posterior view
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 13-5 Neuronal Pools

Functional Organization of Neurons

Sensory neurons
About 10 million
Deliver information to CNS
Motor neurons
About 1/2 million
Deliver commands to peripheral effectors
Interneurons
About 20 billion
Interpret, plan, and coordinate signals in and out

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 13-5 Neuronal Pools

Neuronal Pools
Functional groups of interconnected neurons
(interneurons)
Each with limited input sources and output
destinations
May stimulate or depress parts of brain or spinal
cord

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 13-5 Neuronal Pools

Five Patterns of Neural Circuits in Neuronal Pools

1. Divergence
Spreads stimulation to many neurons or neuronal
pools in CNS
2. Convergence
Brings input from many sources to single neuron
3. Serial processing
Moves information in single line

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 13-5 Neuronal Pools

Five Patterns of Neural Circuits in Neuronal Pools

4. Parallel processing
Moves same information along several paths
simultaneously
5. Reverberation
Positive feedback mechanism
Functions until inhibited

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Example:
A single cell in the
motor cortex capable of
exciting as many as
10,000 muscle fibers
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a Divergence
A mechanism for
spreading stimulation to
multiple neurons or
neuronal pools in the
CNS
 b Convergence

Example: A mechanism for providing

input to a single neuron from
Spatial summation! multiple sources

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 c Serial
processing

Example: A mechanism in
which neurons or
Pain sensation en route pools work
to your conscious sequentially

awareness

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 d Parallel processing

A mechanism in which neurons

Example: or pools process the same
Stepping on a sharp information simultaneously
object = stimulation of
multiple neural pools!
- withdrawing foot
- shifting weight
- feel pain
- shouting Ouch!

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 e Reverberation

Example: A positive feedback

mechanism
Self-reexcitation! Can
lead to memory of
stimulus!

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 13-6 Reflexes

Reflexes
Automatic responses coordinated within spinal cord
Through interconnected sensory neurons, motor
neurons, and interneurons
Produce simple and complex reflexes

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 13-6 Reflexes

Neural Reflexes
Rapid, automatic responses to specific stimuli
Basic building blocks of neural function
One neural reflex produces one motor response
Reflex arc
The wiring of a single reflex
Beginning at receptor
Ending at peripheral effector
Generally opposes original stimulus =
negative feedback

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 Sensation relayed
to the brain by
axon collaterals

1 2
Arrival of Activation of Dorsal root
stimulus and a sensory
activation of neuron
receptor
3
Information
REFLEX processing
ARC
Receptor in the CNS
Stimulus
5
Response by a
peripheral KEY
effector Effector 4
Ventral root
Sensory neuron
(stimulated)
Activation of a
Excitatory
motor neuron interneuron
Motor neuron
(stimulated)

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 13-6 Reflexes
Five Steps in a Neural Reflex
Step 1: Arrival of stimulus, activation of receptor
Physical or chemical changes
Step 2: Activation of sensory neuron
Graded depolarization
Step 3: Information processing by postsynaptic
cell
Triggered by neurotransmitters
Step 4: Activation of motor neuron
Action potential
Step 5: Response of peripheral effector
Triggered by neurotransmitters
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 13-6 Reflexes

Four Classifications of Reflexes

1. By early development
2. By type of motor response
3. By complexity of neural circuit
4. By site of information processing

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 13-6 Reflexes

1. Development of Reflexes
Innate reflexes
Basic neural reflexes
Formed before birth
Acquired reflexes
Rapid, automatic
Learned motor patterns

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 13-6 Reflexes

2. Motor Response
Nature of resulting motor response
Somatic reflexes
Involuntary control of nervous system
Superficial reflexes of skin, mucous membranes
Stretch or deep tendon reflexes (e.g., patellar, or
knee-jerk, reflex)
Visceral reflexes (autonomic reflexes)
Control systems other than muscular system

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 13-6 Reflexes

3. Complexity of Neural Circuit

Monosynaptic reflex
Sensory neuron synapses directly onto motor
neuron
Polysynaptic reflex
At least one interneuron between sensory neuron
and motor neuron

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 13-6 Reflexes

4. Sites of Information Processing

Spinal reflexes
Occur in spinal cord
Cranial reflexes
Occur in brain

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 13-7 Spinal Reflexes

Monosynaptic Reflexes
A stretch reflex
Have least delay between sensory input and motor
output: why?
For example, stretch reflex (such as patellar reflex)
Completed in 2040 msec
Receptor is muscle spindle

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 Receptor
(muscle
Stretch spindle) Spinal cord

REFLEX
Stimulus
ARC

Effector
Contraction

KEY
Response Sensory neuron
(stimulated)
Motor neuron
(stimulated)

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 13-7 Spinal Reflexes

Muscle Spindles
The receptors in stretch reflexes
Bundles of small, specialized intrafusal muscle fibers
Proprioceptors
Innervated by sensory and motor neurons
Surrounded by extrafusal muscle fibers
Which maintain tone and contract muscle

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 13-7 Spinal Reflexes

The Sensory Region

Central region of intrafusal fibers
Wound with dendrites of sensory neurons
Sensory neuron axon enters CNS in dorsal root
Synapses onto motor neurons (gamma motor neurons)
In anterior gray horn of spinal cord

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 13-7 Spinal Reflexes

Gamma Efferents
Axons of the motor neurons
Complete reflex arc
Synapse back onto intrafusal fibers
Important in voluntary muscle contractions
Allow CNS to adjust sensitivity of muscle spindles

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 Gamma
efferent
from CNS

Extrafusal
fiber

To CNS

Sensory
region

Intrafusal
fiber

Muscle
spindle
Gamma
efferent
from CNS

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 13-7 Spinal Reflexes

Postural Reflexes
Stretch reflexes
Maintain normal upright posture
Stretched muscle responds by contracting
Automatically maintains balance

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 13-7 Spinal Reflexes

Polysynaptic Reflexes
More complicated than monosynaptic reflexes
Interneurons control more than one muscle group
Produce either EPSPs or IPSPs

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 13-7 Spinal Reflexes

Example: The Tendon Reflex

Prevents skeletal muscles from:
Developing too much tension
Tearing or breaking tendons
Sensory receptors unlike muscle spindles or
proprioceptors

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 13-7 Spinal Reflexes

Withdrawal Reflexes
Move body part away from stimulus (pain or
pressure)
For example, flexor reflex
Pulls hand away from hot stove
Strength and extent of response depend on
intensity and location of stimulus

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 Distribution within gray horns to
other segments of the spinal cord

Painful Flexors
stimulus stimulated

Extensors
inhibited

Reciprocal Inhibition:
The stretch reflex of antagonistic (extensor) muscle must
be inhibited (reciprocal inhibition) by interneurons in
spinal cord
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 13-7 Spinal Reflexes

Reflex Arcs
Ipsilateral reflex arcs
Occur on same side of body as stimulus
Stretch, tendon, and withdrawal reflexes
Crossed extensor reflexes
Involve a contralateral reflex arc
Occur on side opposite stimulus

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 13-7 Spinal Reflexes

Crossed Extensor Reflexes

Occur simultaneously, coordinated with flexor
reflex
For example, flexor reflex causes leg to pull up
Crossed extensor reflex straightens other leg
To receive body weight
Maintained by reverberating circuits

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 To motor neurons in
other segments of
the spinal cord

Extensors
inhibited Extensors
stimulated
Flexors
KEY stimulated Flexors
Sensory neuron Motor neuron inhibited
(stimulated) (inhibited)
Excitatory Inhibitory
interneuron interneuron
Motor neuron
(stimulated)
Painful
stimulus

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 13-7 Spinal Reflexes

Five General Characteristics of Polysynaptic

Reflexes
1. Involve pools of interneurons
2. Are intersegmental in distribution
3. Involve reciprocal inhibition
4. Have reverberating circuits
Which prolong reflexive motor response
5. Several reflexes cooperate
To produce coordinated, controlled response

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 13-8 The Brain Can Alter Spinal Reflexes
Integration and Control of Spinal Reflexes
Reflex behaviors are automatic
but processing centers in brain can facilitate or
inhibit reflex motor patterns based in spinal cord

Voluntary Movements and Reflex Motor Patterns

Higher centers of brain incorporate lower, reflexive
motor patterns
Automatic reflexes
Can be activated by brain as needed
Use few nerve impulses to control complex motor
functions
Walking, running, jumping
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 13-8 The Brain Can Alter Spinal Reflexes

Reinforcement of Spinal Reflexes

Higher centers reinforce spinal reflexes
By stimulating excitatory neurons in brain stem or
spinal cord
Creating EPSPs at reflex motor neurons
Facilitating postsynaptic neurons

Inhibition of Spinal Reflexes

Higher centers inhibit spinal reflexes by:
Stimulating inhibitory neurons
Creating IPSPs at reflex motor neurons
Suppressing postsynaptic neurons
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 13-8 The Brain Can Alter Spinal Reflexes

The Babinski Reflexes

Normal in infants
May indicate CNS damage in adults

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 The Babinski Reflexes
- Normal in infants, may indicate CNS damage in adults

a The plantar reflex

(negative Babinski
reflex), a curling of the
toes, is seen in healthy
adults.
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 b The Babinski sign (positive
Babinski reflex) occurs in
the absence of descending
inhibition. It is normal in
infants, but pathological in
adults.

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