Waves

2
Understanding Waves
 What is Waves?

A wave is a disturbance or variation that propagates through a

medium, often transferring energy.

Waves travel and transfer energy (its amplitude) and information

(its frequency) from one point to another, with little or no permanent
displacement of the particles of the medium.

Waves transfer energy without transferring physical matter.

 What is Phase?

A phase is the current position in the cycle of something that changes

cyclically.

Two vibrating particles are in the same phase if their displacement and
direction of motion are the same.

In phase Same phase

Out of phase Different phase
Anti-phase Phase different = 180o
 What is Wavefront?

A wavefront is a line or a surface that connects points that are moving at

the same phase and has the same distance from the source of the
waves.

When a circular wave is formed, a circular wave front is formed.

Characteristics of wavefront:
1. wavefronts are always perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation. (As shown in the diagram in next page)
2. all the points on a wavefront have same distance from the source of
the wave.
Plane Wavefronts Circular Wavefronts
 What is Wavelength?

The wavelength () is defined as the distance between two successive

particles which are at the same phase (exactly the same point in their
paths and are moving in the same direction.).
 Types of Waves

Waves can be classified into 2 groups:

1. transverse wave
2. longitudinal wave
 Transverse Waves

A transverse wave is a wave where the particles of the medium vibrate

in a direction that is perpendicular to the direction of the wave motion.

Example:
Light wave, ripple, radio wave
 Longitudinal Waves

A longitudinal wave is a wave where the particles of the medium vibrate

in a direction that is parallel to the direction of the wave motion.

Example:
Sound Wave
 Transverse Wave Crest and Trough

When discussing wave, its important to know what is meant by the

crest and trough of a wave.

The point at which the displacement of the water from its normal level is
highest called the crest of the wave.

The point at which the displacement of the water from its normal level is
lowest called the trough of the wave.
 Longitudinal Wave Compression and Rarefaction

Unlike transverse wave, longitudinal waves have no crest and trough,

instead, they have compression and rarefaction.

In compression regions of longitudinal waves, wave particles of the

medium are packed closer.

In rarefaction regions, wave particles of the medium are packed further

apart.
Each wavefront represents the crest (top) of a transverse wave of the
compression of a longitudinal wave.
 Finding Wavelength for Transverse Wave

Wavelength is the
distance between two
successive crest or
trough.
 Finding Wavelength for Longitudinal Wave

Wavelength is the
distance between two
successive
compression or
rarefaction.
 Finding Wavelength for Longitudinal Wave

Wavelength is the
distance between two
successive
compression or
rarefaction.
 Finding Wavelength for Wavefront Diagram

Wavelength is the
distance between two
successive wave front.
 Amplitude

The amplitude, A is
the maximum
displacement of a
point from its
equilibrium position.

A = 0.4m
Equilibrium Position
 Period

Period, T is the time

taken for the oscillating
system to complete one
cycle/oscillation.
 Frequency

Frequency, f is the
number of oscillation
which occur in one
second.
 Period & Frequency

The period and frequency of a wave is related by the

following equation:

Unit SI:Hz @ s-1

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 Wave Speed

Wave speed, v is the

distance moved by a
wave in one second.

It is a measurement of
how fast a point on a
wave moves from a fixed
position.
The Wave Equation
 Example

The speed of sound is 330 -1

ms . If
the wavelength of the sound was 4m,
what was the frequency of the
sound?
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 Displacement Distance Graph

1. A Displacement Distance graph shows the position of each particle

in a wave relative to its distance from a reference point.
2. The distance between two (2) successive crest or trough is the
wavelength.
3. The maximum displacement of the particles from the equilibrium
position (displacement = 0) is the amplitude.
4. The amplitude of the wave will increase as the energy transfers by
the wave increase and vice versa.
 Comparing Displacement-Time Graph and Displacement- Distance
Graph

1. Both the displacement-time graph and the displacement distance

graph looked similar. However they are 2 different types of graph.
2. The displacement-time graph illustrate the displacement of an object
over time whereas the displacement-distance graph tell the position
of the vibrating particles of a wave.
3. For a displacement- distance graph, the distance between 2
crest/trough represent the period whereas for the displacement-
distance graph, it represents the wavelength.
48
Phenomena Of Waves: Ripple Tank

The function of the eccentric /motor is

to produce a reciprocating motion.

The function of the sponge beach is to

prevent reflection of the waves.

The function of the dipper are:

1. To produce waves of different shape

2. Straight parallel waves may be
produced by a horizontal wooden
bar.
3. Circular waves may be produced by
a vertical ball-ended rod.
Phenomena Of Waves: Ripple Tank

Explain how the dark and light bands are

formed on the screen.

1. The dark and light bands formed on the screen owing to the
refraction of light.
2. As shown in figure above, when the light from the light
house passes through the area around the peak of a wave,
the light will be converged and form a bright band on the
screen.
3. Conversely, when the light from the light house passes
through the area around the trough of a wave, the light will
be diverged and form a dark band on the screen.
Phenomena Of Waves: Ripple Tank
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Damping and Force
Oscillation
 Natural Frequency

The Natural frequency of an oscillating

system is the frequency of the system when
there is no external force or forces acting on
it.
 Damping

Damping is the decrease of amplitude of an oscillating

system.

An oscillating system experiences damping when its

energy is losing to the surrounding as heat energy.

Usually, the frequency of the system remain

unchanged.
 Type of Damping

Damping can be divided into:

1. Internal damping , where an oscillating system

loses energy to overcome frictional force or air
resistance that act on it.

2. External damping , where an oscillating system

loses energy due to the extension and compression
of the molecules in the system.
 Force Oscillation

In a damped oscillation, external force must be applied

to the system to enable the oscillation to go on
continuously.

Oscillation with the help of external force or forces is

called a force oscillation.

If no more external forces are applied to the system it is

a free oscillator.
 Resonance

In a force oscillation, if the frequency of

the external force is equal to the natural
frequency of the system, the system will
oscillates with maximum amplitude, and
this is named as resonance.
 Example of Resonance

Opera singer breaks a wine glass with her voice due to the effect
of resonance.
 Example of Resonance

Tacoma Narrow Bridge in USA collapsed in 1940 due to the

effect of resonance.
 Example of Resonance
A moving bus produces excessive noise at certain speed when
the frequency of the engine equal to the natural frequency of the
bus.
Example of Resonance

Tuning fork
 Application of Resonance

Resonance is used to tune radio or television to your favourite

channels.
 Application of Resonance

The characteristic of resonance

can be demonstrated with a
Bartons pendulum system.

Observation:
1. When pendulum X oscillates,
the other pendulums are
forced to oscillate.

2. Pendulum D will oscillates

with the largest amplitude.
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Phenomena of Waves
 Phenomena of Waves

There are 4 phenomena of waves:

Reflection
Refraction
Diffraction
Interference

Diffraction and interference are unique phenomena.

Only waves perform these phenomena.
 Sound waves and boundaries
Like other waves, sound
waves can be reflected by
surfaces and refracted as
they pass from one
material to another.
Sound waves reflect from
hard surfaces.
Soft materials can absorb
sound waves.
Reflection
 Reflection

1. Reflection occurs when an incident wave hits a reflector and

reflected back.
2. The direction of propagation of the wave changed when it is
reflected.
3. The wavelength, frequency and speed of wave remain unchanged.
4. The amplitude of the wave may or may not change depend on the
material of the reflector and the shape of the wavefront.
Reflection of Water Waves
 Reflection of Straight and Circular Wave

1. Reflection of waves obeys the law of reflection, that is

The angle of incident is equal to the angle of reflection
The incident wave, reflected wave and the normal lie on the
same plane.
2. For reflection of circular wave, the distance of image from the
reflector is equal to the distance of source of wave from the
reflector.
There are two laws of reflection.
 Analyzing Reflection of Waves

Reflection is the change in the direction of a wave as a result of

bouncing off the boundary between two mediums.
 Analyzing Reflection of Waves

An incident wave is the wave that travels towards a boundary.

A reflected wave is the wave that has undergone reflection.

During a reflection, the wave obeys a certain rule.

This rule is called the Law of Reflection.

The wavelength of the wave that undergoes reflection remains unchanged.

The incident wave and the reflected wave have the same speed.
 Reflection Of Light Wave

The characteristic of reflection of light enables us to see objects. Objects

that do not emit light are not seen in the dark. An object only is seen if
light is incident on it a reflected back to our eyes.
 Application of Reflection of Light

Head lamp of a car

Side mirror and rear view mirror of car
Cat eye reflector
Telecommunication - optical fibre
Endoscope in medication
Periscope in submarine
 Application of Reflection of Waves

Sonar (sound navigating and ranging) can be used to locate the position
of an object by measuring the time taken by an echo to return to the
ultrasonic wave source.

Fishing boats use sonar to determine the depth of the sea or to detect
fishes under the sea. This process is called echolocation.

Radar works by reflecting microwave pulses off objects and measuring

the time taken for the echo to return.
Application of Reflection of Waves
Reflection Of Sound Wave

The angle of incidence, i is equal to the

angle of reflection, r.

Sound waves obey the law of reflection.

That is, the angle of incidence is equal to

the angle of reflection.
 Experiment: Reflection Of Sound Wave
Why hard plywood is used?
A hard surface is a good sound
reflector. Hard plywood is used so
that only very little energy is lost
during the reflection.
Why cardboard tube is used?
The cardboard tube is used to
help to direct the incident and
reflected sound waves.
Why mechanical stop watch is
used as source of sound?
Because its sound is not loud
enough to be heard directly by the
observer.
Why soft wood is used?
The soft wood can absorb any
sound from the stopwatch and
prevent it from reaching the
observer.
Speed of Water Waves
 Speed of Water Waves

When straight waves pass from deep to shallow water, their

a. wave-length becomes shorter

b. speed decreases
c. frequency remain unchanged
 Speed of Water Waves

This can be illustrated by placing a piece of rectangular Perspex of

suitable thickness in the tank to reduce the local water depth.

Figure shows the wavefront diagram of the wave

formed.

We can see that the wavelength above the

Perspex is shallower.
 Speed of Water Waves

The relationship between the speed and wavelength of the wave in

deep and shallow region is given by the formula below.

vd/d = vs/s
vd = speed of wave in deep region
d = wavelength of wave in deep region

vs = speed of wave in shallow region

s = wavelength of wave in shallow region
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Refraction
 Refraction Of Waves At A Boundary

Refraction is the change in direction of

propagation when a wave moves from one
medium to another medium.

It is caused by the change of the speed of the

wave when moving from one medium to another.

For water waves, refraction occurs when the

waves move from one region to another region of
different depth.
Deep to Shallow Region
Wavelength decreases
Refracted closer to normal
 Shallow to Deep Region
Wavelength increases
Refracted further away normal
 What happens to frequency, speed,
wavelength and direction?

After refraction, the wave has the same frequency, but a different
speed, wavelength and direction of propagation.
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If water waves pass through a shallow region of
convex shape, the waves will be converged.

If water waves pass through a shallow region of

concave shape, the waves will be diverged.
Shape of the Coastline due to Wave Refraction

In the centre of the ocean, the

wavefronts are straight and parallel to
each other. This is because the water
waves travel at uniform speed as the
depth of the sea water is uniform.

When the waves reach the coast, the

water is shallower.

Wave speed is reduced and refraction

occurs. The wavefronts are refracted
and become closer to each other.
Wavelength decreases.

Refraction causes the wavefronts to be

bent towards the normal.
Wave refraction causes wavefronts to
parallel the shape of the coastline as
they approach shore.

Wave refraction also causes wave

energy to converge at cape and resulting
erosion.

Wave energy diverges at bay and

spreads out to a wider region, resulting
deposition of sand. Therefore, amplitude
of waves at the bay is smaller than at the
cape.
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 During a hot day - sound
Sound Waves can be heard only a short
distance away unlike on a
cool night because:

during daytime, air near the

surface of the earth is
warmer and less dense;
while higher up, air is cooler
and denser.

Sound is therefore refracted

upwards progressively
towards the normal and
away from the surface of the
earth.

110
Sound Waves During a cool night - the
opposite effect happens:

Sound can be heard a longer

horizontal distance away
because
air is cooler and denser near
the earth surface than higher
up -
sound is refracted
downwards progressively
away from the normal until it
is reflected back to the earth
surface.

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 Light
Waves

Pool or tub looks shallower

Submerged part of spoon, drinking straw or ruler looks bent
Pencil or ruler appears broken when viewed through a glass block
Atmospheric refraction of rising or setting sun:
the Sun below the horizon appears above horizon;
the Sun looks oval and flattened
Atmospheric refraction of the stars:
the twinkling effect
the star appears higher than its actual position
Divers' or fish's 96o cone-view of the abovewater world and 42o view
of the underwater world (assuming critical angle of the sea water
being 48o)

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Interference
 Interference of Waves

Interference is the effect of superposition of two waves

from two coherent sources.

Coherent waves are the waves that can produce same

frequency, same amplitude and same phase ( or with
constant phase difference ).

The principle of superposition states that when two

waves meet at the same point, the resultant displacement
at that point is equal to the vector sum of the
displacements produced by the individual waves at that
point.
 The constructive interference
occurs when two crests or two
troughs meet each other.

The destructive interference

occurs when a crest meets a
trough.

Anti-nodal line is a line joining

all the constructive interference
points.

Nodal line is a line joining all the

destructive interference points.
Node and Antinode
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Youngs Formula
 Factors affecting the interference pattern

The interference pattern depend on the value of x

When x changes, the interference pattern also changes

x is inversely proportional to a
x is directly proportional to the wavelength
x is directly proportional to D
Interference of Lights
Youngs double-slit experiment
Youngs double-slit experiment
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Interference
of Sound
Waves
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Pitch of the Sound
There are three characteristics of sound:

Frequency affects pitch of the sound

Amplitude affects loudness of the sound
Wave form affects quality of the sound
Frequency - Pitch

The frequency of a wave is measured

as the number of complete vibrations
of particles of a medium per unit time.
A commonly used unit for frequency is
Hertz.

Pitch is an auditory sensation in which

listener assigns musical tones to relative
positions on a musical scale based on the
frequency of sound. A high pitch sound
corresponds to a high frequency sound
wave and low pitch sound corresponds to
a low frequency sound wave.
 A string vibrates with a particular
fundamental frequency. It is possible,
however, to produce pitches with different
frequencies from the same string.

The four properties of the string that affect its

frequency are length, diameter, tension, and
density.
1. When the length of a string is changed, it will vibrate with a
different frequency. Shorter strings have higher frequency and
therefore higher pitch.

2. Diameter is the thickness of the string. Thick strings with large

diameters vibrate slower and have lower frequencies than thin ones.

3. Tightening the string gives it a higher frequency while loosening it

lowers the frequency. This is due to different tension.

4. The density of a string will also affect its frequency. Remember

that dense molecules vibrate at slower speeds. The more dense the
string is, the slower it will vibrate, and the lower its frequency will be.
Instruments often have strings made of different materials. The
strings used for low pitches will be made of a more dense material
than the strings used for high pitches.
 Frequency
Name Characteristics
Range (Hz)

Very low frequencies of sound that the

human ear cant detect, but you

Infrasonic 0 - 20
mayfeel the rumbling of the waves

through your body.

Normal range for human ears, although

Sonic (AKA
20 - 20 000 not everyone (especially the elderly)
Audio)
will hear to the extremes of this range.

Beyond normal hearing for humans,

although some animals (like dogs) hear

Ultrasonic 20 000 + part ways into this range. Also used in

Loudness of the Sound
Loudness of Sound

The loudness of a sound depends on

the wave's amplitude.
The louder the sound, the higher the
amplitude. So, amplitude is also a
way of measuring the energy has.

The higher the energy, the higher the

amplitude resulting a louder sound.

The system used to measure the

loudness of sounds is the decibel
system, given the unit dB.
Amplifier is a device to increase the loudness of sound by use
of an external energy source.

It drives the loudspeakers used in PA system to make the

human voice louder.
Application of Reflection of
Sound
 Echoes

Echoes are caused by the reflection of sound.

A sound wave will continue to bounce around
or reverberate until it has lost all its energy. A
wave has some of its energy absorbed by the
objects it hits. The rest lost as heat energy.

The phenomenon of the reflection of sound is

used to determine the distance between the
two objects, for example depth of seabed,
depth of cave or width of a valley. The type of
sound used must be ultrasound.
 Sonar (Sound Navigation and Ranging). Sonar
is used to detect underwater objects (corals /
Sonar fishes) or to determine the depth of the water
by means of an echo. Sonar equipment emits a
high frequency sound signal which is reflected
by the object in the water. The reflected sound
wave is received by the sonar receiver. The
time taken for the echo to return is used to
determine the distance of the object below the
water surface.

Sonar waves of high frequency is used because

it possesses more energy, high penetration
power and can travel further through water.
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 Application of
Interference of Waves
 Application of Destructive Interference
Noise Cancellation
Noise cancellation is a method to reduce or completely cancel out
undesirable sound.
A noise-cancellation speaker emits a sound wave with the same
amplitude, frequency but anti-phase with the original sound.
The waves will combine each other in a process called destructive
interference, eventually the waves will cancel each other and there
would be no sound.
The sum of the waves is equal to zero.
 Application of Noise Cancellation:

Headphone - people working near aircraft or in noisy factories can now

wear these electronic noise cancellation headsets to protect their
hearing.

Cars - The way it works is that a microphone connected to the car

stereo system picks up all the sound inside the car, including music or
such from the stereo. Then the noise-cancellation system subtracts
the sound of the music coming from the stereo and produces noise-
canceling sound waves that match the frequency of unwanted sound.

Aircraft - The system uses microphones to pick up the vibrations due

to jet's engine in the cabin walls. It then analyzes the signals and
generates counter vibrations in the walls to produce a net result of
zero vibrations.
Diffraction
Diffraction is the spreading of a wave as it goes through
a narrow gap or passes round a small obstacle.

The effect of diffraction increases when the width of the

gap is decreased.
 Characteristics of Diffraction
When diffraction occurs:

i. Wave direction changes.

ii. Wave velocity, , changes.
iii.Wavelength, , is unchanged.
iv.Frequency, , is unchanged.
v. Speed unchanged.

The amplitude, , of the diffracted wave

is smaller compared to that of the
incident wave, as the wave energy is
spread out over a larger surface.
 Diffraction of Water Waves
Waves are diffracted more if the

i. Opening is narrow.
ii. Obstacle is small.
When the width of the opening is smaller than the wavelength, , the wave
will be well diffracted.

When the opening is very narrow, The size of the opening is too big,
the wave is very well diffracted. the wave is not well diffracted.

188
When the size of the obstacle is smaller than the wavelength, , the wave
will be well diffracted.

The size of the obstacle is small, the The size of the obstacle is too big,
waves are well diffracted. the waves are not well
diffracted.

189
The effect of diffraction increases when the wavelength
is increased.
 Diffraction of Light Waves
Light is diffracted when it passes through a very narrow opening such as a
pin-hole or a slit.
The diffraction pattern produced by light consists of a central bright fringe
and a few smaller bright fringes, separated by dark fringes.

192
The result of the single slit
cannot be explained by
geometrical optics.

Geometrical optics would say

that light rays travelling in
straight lines should cast a sharp
image of the slit on the screen.

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 Diffraction of Sound Waves

Sound can be diffracted as it passes through window slits or wall corners.

The cleaner standing at the point where he

cannot see the radio but he can hear the sound
from it due to diffraction of sound waves by the
wall corner.

194
 Applications in Everyday Life

Sea-walls in a harbour jetty:

i. Strong concrete walls are usually

built in the sea near a harbour
jetty to protect the boats from
damage caused by strong waves.
ii. When strong waves rush towards
the harbour jetty, the concrete
barriers reflect some of the
waves and allow others to diffract
through the opening between
the barriers.

195
Application of diffraction in sea waves
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Electromagnetic Wave
 Electromagnetic Wave

An electromagnetic wave consists of vibration perpendicular of

magnetic and electric fields.
 Properties of Electromagnetic Wave

They can transfer energy from one point to another.

They are transverse wave
They can travel through vacuum (do not require medium)
They travel at the same speed of the light
They can be polarised
They all show reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction
They obey the wave equation, v = f, v is constant
Relationship between f and
Relationship between f and
Relationship between f and energy
Visible light is a part of the electromagnetic spectrum
 How to Remember Visible Light (Rainbow)?

Michael Jackson Kills His Brother In USA

How to Remember EM Waves?
The sources of
electromagnetic
waves and the
applications.
The sources of
electromagnetic
waves and the
applications.
 Gamma Rays

Gamma rays are used in medical applications to treat

cancer and to sterilize equipment. Gamma rays are also
used as medical tracers to locate tumors.
X Rays

MEDICAL IMAGING
UV Rays
Visible Light
Visible Light
Infrared
 Microwaves
Microwaves
Microwaves are radio waves of very short wavelengths (from 103
m to 101 m)
Uses:
Satellite Microwave ovens Radar Communication
communication for
satellite television, GPS
and mobile
 Radio Waves
Radio waves
Radio waves have the longest wavelengths in the
electromagnetic spectrum
Wavelengths range from several hundred metres to a few
centimetres

Uses: to transmit sound and pictures in radio and television

Effects of EM Waves
 Effects of EM Waves
Ionising radiation on living matter
Ionising radiation is radiation that has the energy to remove electrons
from atoms or molecules.

Exposure to ionising radiation can damage biological molecules and

lead to abnormal cell division.

This may cause cancers and/or deformities to a developing foetus.

Radiation warning symbol

 Effects of EM Waves
Infrared Heating
The emission of infrared radiation is what makes us feel warm when
we stand near a barbecue pit.

We feel warm because we absorb the infrared radiation.

Heat radiating from the charcoal is

actually infrared radiation.
 Practice Question 1
The velocity of radio waves is 3.0 108 m s1. A radio station is
broadcasting at a frequency of 1.0 106 Hz. What is the wavelength of
the radio wave?
 Practice Question 2
Which of the following options lists the members of the electromagnetic
spectrum in order of increasing wavelength?
A Microwaves, ultraviolet, infrared, X-rays
B X-rays, ultraviolet, infrared, microwaves
C Ultraviolet, infrared, microwaves, X-rays Highest energy
Highest f
D Infrared, ultraviolet, microwaves, X-rays
Lowest

Answer:
a) Write down the order: RMIVUXG
b) Recall Gamma Ray has highest energy highest f lowest
 Practice Question 3
Name three regions of the electromagnetic spectrum with lower
frequency than visible light.

Highest energy
Highest f
Lowest

RMIVUXG
 Practice Question 4
Do gamma rays or radio waves have a higher speed when travelling in a
vacuum?

Answer:
All electromagnetic waves have the same speed (3 108 m s1) when
travelling in a vacuum.
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Practice Questions
Yr 2010, P1, Q25:

Which device is used to show that light is a transverse

wave?

A. Glass Prism B. Double Slit

C. Diffraction Grating D. Polaroid block
Yr 2008, P1 Q 33:

Which is the correct relationship between the

wavelength of an electromagnetic radiation and the
energy it carries?

Wave length Energy carried

A. Short High
B. Short Low
C. Long High
D. Long Low
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Answer

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