Chapter Three:

STOICHIOMETRY
 Chemical Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry - The study of quantities

of materials consumed and produced in
chemical reactions.
Atomic Masses
 Atomic Masses

Elements occur in nature as mixtures of

isotopes
Carbon = 98.89% 12C
1.11% 13C
<0.01% 14C Carbon atomic
mass = 12.01 amu
Schematic Diagram of a Mass
Spectrometer
 An Atomic mass
is the relative
mass of an
average atom of
an element using
Atomic the 126C isotope as
Masses a reference
1 amu 1.6606 x 10-24 grams or
1 amu
1
Relative masses of
- 24
1.6606 x 10 grms selected isotopes on
the 12
6 C atomic mass
scale
 AverageAtom/ Weighted Averages
Atomic masses are weighted averages calculated from the
following information:

1. The number of isotopes that exist.

2. The isotopic mass for each isotope on the 612C scale.
3. The percent abundance of each isotope.
The element magnesium (Mg) has three stable
isotopes with the following masses and
abundances:

Isotope Mass (amu) Abundance

24Mg 23.9850 78.99%
25Mg 24.9858 10.00%
26Mg 25.9826 11.01%

Calculate the average atomic mass (the atomic

weight) of magnesium from these data.
IF ALL ATOMS ARE COMPOSED OF THE SAME
COMPONENTS:
-- ELECTRONS electron

-- PROTONS neutron

-- NEUTRONS proton

WHY DO DIFFERENT ATOMS HAVE DIFFERENT

PROPERTIES?

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ATOMS ARISE FROM

THEIR ELECTRONS.
Moles, Molar Mass,
and Percent
Composition
 A MOLE
1 mole has exactly as many particles (atoms,

molecules, formulas) as in 1.200,000 grams of 126C.

This is Avogadros number, 6.022 X 1023

CALCULATION OF FORMULA MASS

FORMULA MASS = Sum of all atomic masses in the compound

formula
FORMULA MASS = Formula weight, f.w.
= Molecular mass
= Molecular weight, m.w.

Example: CaCl2 calcium chloride

Ca 1 atom X 40.078 amu / 1 atom = 40.078 amu, grams

Cl 2 atoms X 35.453 amu / 1 atom = 70.906 amu, grams
CaCl2 formula mass = 110.984 amu, grams
 THE MASS OF A MOLE
Molar mass of an element is its atomic mass in grams.

Molar mass of a compound or molecule or formula is its

molecular mass in grams.

Example: Ca 40.078 grams Ca = 1 mole of Ca

or 40.078 grams Ca = 1
1 mole CaCl2
CaCl2 110.984 grams CaCl2 = 1mole CaCl2
or 110.984 grams CaCl2 = 1
1 mole CaCl2
 The Mole A Chemists Counting Unit

A mole of anything is 6.022 x 1023 anything.

Avogadros number is 6.022 x 1023.
6.022 x 1023 atoms = 1 mole atom
Or 6.022 x 1023 atoms
1 USE
1 mole atoms
6.022 x 1023 molecules = 1 mole molecules DIMENSIONAL
Or
1 mole molecules ANALYSIS ON
23
1 EVERY
6.022 x 10
OPERATION
Example:

6.022 x 10 23 molecules CaCl2

3.631 moles CaCl2 x
1 mole CaCl2
2.186 x 1024 molecules CaCl2
Calculate the molar mass of each of the following substances:
a. I2 b. P4 c. CrCl3
d. C4H8 e. CrO2Cl2 f. CaF2

Calculate the number of atoms in each of the following quantities:

a. 36.1 g of argon
b. 5.00 g of chromium
c. 1.00 oz of silver
d. The 44 - carat Hope diamond, which is nearly pure
carbon (one carat equals 0.200 g)
e. 2.50 mL of mercury with a density of 13.6 g/mL
 (Use Dimensional Analysis in every step)
For calculation of
1. Number of PARTICLES.
2. Number of MOLES.
3. Number of GRAMS or MASS
All are related

Particles 1 mole
Of substance X 6.022 x 1023 particles = moles
Particles of Avogadros Moles of
substance Number substance
Grams of 1 mole
substance X
Molar mass of substance = moles
Grams of Molar Moles of
substance mass substance
Moles of X Formula subscript, atoms
substance = Moles of element
1 mole of compound
formula Moles of element
Moles of
compound subscript In compound
Determine the mass in grams of the following:

a. 3.00 X 1020 N2 molecules e. 2.00 X 10-15 mol N2

b. 3.00 X 10-3 mol N2 f. 18.0 picomoles of N2
c. 1.5 X 102 mol N2 g. 5.0 nanomoles of N2
d. A single N2 molecule

How many moles are represented by each of these samples?

a. 100 molecules (exactly) of H2O

b. 100.0 g H2O
c. 500 atoms (exactly) of Fe
d. 500.0 g Fe
e. 150 molecules (exactly) of O2
 SCHEMATIC OF
CALCULATIONS
(conversions)
For Particles, Moles and Mass
Particles Avogadros Moles formula Moles Avogadros Particles
of A number of A subscript of B number of B

USE Molar Molar

DIMENSIONAL mass mass
ANALYSIS
Grams Grams
(UNITS) of B
of A

UNITS WANTED = (HAVE) X (CONVERSION FACTORS)

= (GIVEN UNITS) X (CONVERSION FACTOR UNITS)
Which of the following is closest to the
average mass of one atom of copper?
a) 63.55 g
b) 52.00 g
c) 58.93 g
d) 65.38 g
e) 1.055 X 10-22 g
Which of the following 100.0 g
samples contains the greatest number
of atoms?
a) Magnesium
b) Zinc
c) Silver
 Rank the following according to number
of atoms (greatest to least):
a) 100.0 g of silver
b) 62.0 g of zinc
c) 21.0 g of magnesium
Consider separate 100.0 gram samples
of each of the following:
H2O, N2O, C3H6O2, CO2
Rank them from greatest to least number
of oxygen atoms.
 Percent
Composition
 Mass Percent
mass of element in 1 mole
Mass % X 100%
mass of 1 mole of compound
(atomic wt. of element)(# of atoms in mole)
X 100%
(molec. wt. of 1 mole compound)

OR: USING DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS:

Mass % = (g element. / 1 mol element.)(# moles element. / 1 mole subs) X 100%

(g substance / 1 mole substance)

Example: Find mass % Al in Al2O3

Mass % = (26.98 g Al / 1 mol Al)(2 mol Al / 1 molAl2O3) X 100%
(101.96 g Al2O3/ 1 mole Al2O3)
= 52.92 % Al in Al2O3
 CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
Mole Concept
* a unit to count atoms, molecules, compounds,
* Avogadros number 6.022 X 1023

Chemical Formulas
* definite proportions of atoms to each other,
* calculation of formula mass
(also called formula weight, f.w.
or molecular weight, m.w.,
or molar mass)
* percent (%) composition
* empirical formulas
* molecular formulas
ALL OF THESE FORMULAS USE DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
 Percent Composition

Mass percent of an element:

mass of element in compound
mass % 100%
mass of compound

For iron in iron (III) oxide, (Fe2O3)

11169
.
mass % Fe 100% 69.94%
159.69
Determining the
Formula of a
Compound
 EMPIRICAL and MOLECULAR FORMULAS

A MOLECULAR FORMULA gives the actual number of atoms present in a

formula unit of a compound.
An EMPIRICAL FORMULA gives the smallest whole number ratio of atoms
in a formula unit of a compound.
Molecular formula = whole number X empirical formula
= (empirical formula)E
where E is the whole number multiplier.
Examples:
Compound name Empirical formula Molecular formula E
Dinitrogen
tetrafluoride NF2 N2F4 2
hydrogen
peroxide HO H 2 O2 2
sodium NaCl NaCl 1
chloride
benzene CH C 6H 6 6
Aluminum metal is produced by passing an electric current

through a solution of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) dissolved in

molten cryolite (Na3AlF6). Calculate the molar masses of

Al2O3 and Na3AlF6.

Also for % composition m/m

-- Calculate the Mass % of Each Element in the Compound.
-- Let the Mass % = the Grams of the Element.
-- Calculate the Moles of Each Element.
-- Divide Each Number of Moles by the Smallest Number.
This represents the Empirical Formula Subscript for Each
Element in the Compound.
-- Multiply by an integer so Each Subscript is a Whole Number

e.g. 1.5 X 2 = 3 1.25 X 4 = 5

1.33 X 3 = 4 etc.
Calculate the percent of the first element in each of the
following compounds.
a. BaCl2 b. Na2CO3 c. CuSO4 d. CoCl2

Determine the empirical formulas of the compounds with

the following percent compositions.
a. 72.36% Fe , 27.64 % O
b. 58.53% C, 4.09 % H, 11.38 % N, 25.99 % O
c. 63.15 % C, 5.30 % H, 31.55 % O
d. 85.62 % C, 14.38 % H
One of the most commonly used white pigments in paint is a compound
of titanium and oxygen that contains 59.9 % Ti by mass. Calculate the
empirical formula of this compound.

A compound that contains only nitrogen and oxygen is 30.4 % N by

mass; the molar mass of the compound is 92 g/mol. What is the
empirical formula of the compound? What is the molecular formula of
the compound?
 MOLECULAR FORMULA DETERMINATION
--Calculate the Empirical Formula.
--Compute the Empirical Formula Weight.
--Determine the Molecular Weight.
--Calculate:
(g/mole)(empirical formula/g) = empirical formula / mole
Therefore:
(CaHbOc)E CaEHbEOcE
Where E = number of empirical formulas in one molecular formula or
WHOLE NUMBER MULTIPLIER
Chemical Equations
 Chemical Reaction:

A process in which at least one new substance

is created by chemical change.

Reactants:
substances present before reaction starts.
(written on the left side)

Products:
substances produced by chemical reaction.
(written on the right side)
 Chemical Equation
A written statement using symbols and formulas to
describe a chemical reaction.
OR, it is... Chemists shorthand like:
algebra to mathematicians
recipes to a chef
acronyms to the military
computer jargon
Format:
1. Reactants on left, before reaction occurs.
2. Products on right, after reaction occurs.
3. Arrow points to products and means: goes to, produces,forms,
reacts to give.
4. + sign used between different reactants and products.
Requirements:
1. Must be consistent with experimental facts.
2. Obeys conservation of mass.
 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS

Mass is neither created nor destroyed in an ordinary

chemical reaction.

Or:

In a chemical reaction,
Total mass, reactants = total mass, products.
SYMBOLS USED IN EQUATIONS
Symbol Meaning
(essential ones)
to produce, goes to,
forms, reacts to give
+ reacts with, and, plus
(optional ones)
(s) solid
(l) liquid
(g) gas
(aq) aqueous solution
(dissolved in water)
 Information Conveyed by the Balanced Equation
for the Combustion of Methane

Reactants Products
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

1 molecule CH4 1 molecule CO2

+ 2 molecules O2 + 2 molecules H2O

1 mole CH4 molecules 1 mole CO2 molecules

+ 2 mole O2 molecules + 2 mole H2O molecules

6.022 X 1023 CH4 molecules 6.022 X 1023 CO2 molecules

+ 2 (6.022 X 1023) O2 molecules + 2(6.022 X 1023) H2O molecules

16 g CH4 + 2(32 g) O2 44 g CO2 + 2(18 g) H2O

80 grams reactants 80 grams products

GRAM

DIVIDE BY MW

MOLE
X 6.023 X 10 23

MOLECULES
X # ATOMS

ATOMS
 EQUATIONS AND THE MOLE CONCEPT

moles of equation moles of

substance A coefficients substance B

Coefficients give the numerical relationships among formula units consumed and/or
produced in a chemical reaction.

P4O10 + 6 H2 O 4 H3PO4

3 mole to mole relationships:

1 mole P4O10 produces 4 moles of H3PO4
6 moles of H2O produces 4 moles of H3PO4
1 mole of P4O10 produces 6 moles of H2O
Now write dimensional analysis factors:
1 mole P4O10 and 4 moles H3PO4

4 moles H3PO4 1 mole P4O10
or -------
Give a word interpretation of the balanced equation
CS2 + 3 O2 CO2 + 2 SO2
in terms of (a) molecules and (b) moles.

Write the twelve mole to mole conversion factors that can

be derived from the balanced equation.
3 HNO2 2 NO + HNO3 + H2O

Write the twelve mole-to-mole conversion factors that can

be derived from the balanced equation.

N2H4 + 2 H2O2 N2 + 4 H2O

 BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

A balanced equation has an equal number of each element in reactants as in

products.

coefficients -- number of moles of a substance

subscripts -- number of atoms of an element or polyatomic ions in
one mole of the substance (compound)
coefficient - multiplier for H and O
2H2O
subscript - multiplier for H only
coefficient - multiplier for Ca , P and O
3 Ca3(PO4)2
subscripts - 3 multiplier for Ca
- 4 multiplier for O
- 2 multiplier for both P, O
 STEPS TO BALANCE AN EQUATION
1. Coefficients are the smallest set of whole numbers.
2. Consider polyatomic ions as single entities (use ( ) to
keep them together).
3. Subscripts in a compound may not be changed during
balancing, only coefficients may be.
4. Product compounds of a reaction will be given or
predicted from known principles.
5. Balancing by inspection is the method for this class.
Certain reactions which involve changes in oxidation
states require more detailed methods.
6. All chemical equations are the result of experimental
data and may be verified by experiment.
Balance these equations:

C3H8 + O2 CO2 + H2O

BaCl2 + Na3PO4 Ba3(PO4)2 + NaCl

AgNO3(aq) + Al(s) Al(NO3)3 (aq) + Ag(s)

Which of the following correctly balance the
chemical equation given below? There may
be more than one correct balanced equation.
If a balanced equation is incorrect, explain
what is incorrect about it.
CaO + C CaC2 + CO2
I. CaO2 + 3C CaC2 + CO2
II. 2CaO + 5C 2CaC2 + CO2
III. CaO + (2.5)C CaC2 + (0.5)CO2
IV. 4CaO + 10C 4CaC2 + 2CO2
Which of the following are true concerning
balanced chemical equations? There may be
more than one true statement.
The number of molecules is conserved.
The coefficients tell you how much of each substance
you have.
Atoms are neither created nor destroyed.
The coefficients indicate the mass ratios of the
substances used.
The sum of the coefficients on the reactant side
equals the sum of the coefficients on the product side.
 SUMMARY

The number of atoms of each type of element must

be the same on both sides of a balanced equation.
Subscripts must not be changed to balance an
equation.
A balanced equation tells us the ratio of the number
of molecules which react and are produced in a
chemical reaction.
Coefficients can be fractions, although they are
usually given as lowest integer multiples.
Trial and error is a valid method to balance a
chemical equation.
Stoichiometric
Calculations:
Amounts of
Reactants and
Products
Calculations Based on Chemical Equations - Stoichiometry
Chemical stoichiometry is the study of the quantitative relationships among
reactants and products in a chemical reaction

Always use dimensional analysis

Particles of Avogadros Moles of equation Moles of Avogadros Particles of

A number A coefficients B number B

Molar Molar
mass mass

Grams of Grams of
A B
 STOICHIOMETRY
Stoichiometry is the relationship of quantities of reactants
consumed and products made in all chemical reaction.

Mole
A mole is the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon
12.

One mole of any substance contains 6.022 X 1023 atoms

(Avogadros number) of that substance.

The mass of one mole of an element is the weighted average

atomic mass of all isotopes of that element OR the total of all
the element masses in a compound or chemical formula.
 STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS
Of Masses/Moles
Use Dimensional Analysis:

Balance the reaction equation.

Convert Known masses to moles.
Set up mole ratios from the equation
Calculate Moles of desired product or reactant.
Convert From moles to mass as required.
Given the equation:

4 NH3 (g) + 5 O2 (g) 4 NO (g) + 6 H2O (g)

(a) How many moles of O2 are needed to produce 1.34 moles of NO?
(b) How many moles of H2O will be produced from 0.789 mole of NH3?
(c) How many moles of NH3 are needed to react with 3.22 moles of O2 ?
(d) How many moles of NO are produced when 0.763 mole of H2O is
produced?

C3H8 (g) + 5 O2 (g) 3 CO2 (g) + 4 H2O (g)

(a) How many moles of O2 are needed to produce 2.38 moles of H2O?
(b) How many moles of CO2 will be produced from 0.57 moles of C3H8?
(c) How many moles of C3H8 are needed to react with 1.45 moles of O2 ?
(d) How many moles of CO2 are produced when 1.11 moles of H2O are
produced?
 The reusable booster rockets of the U.S. space shuttle employ a mixture of
aluminum and ammonium perchlorate for fuel. A possible equation for this reaction
is
3 Al (s) + 3 NH4ClO4 (s) Al2O3 (s) + AlClO3 (s) + 3 NO (g) + 6 H2O (g)
What mass of NH4ClO4 should be used in the fuel mixture for every kilogram of Al?

Anthraquinone (C14H8O2), an important intermediate in the dye industry, is produced

from the reaction of benzene (C6H6), followed by dehydration with sulfuric acid.
The overall reaction is
C8H4O3 (s) + C6H6 (l) C14H8O2 (s) + H2O (l)
A. What mass of benzene reacts completely with 2.00 X 103 g phthalic anhydride?
B. What masses of anthraquinone and of water are produced assuming 100% yield?
C. If 1.96 X 103 g anthraquinone is actually obtained, what is the percentage yield of
the reaction?
Elixirs such as Alka-Seltzer use the reaction of sodium bicarbonate with citric acid
in aqueous solution to produce a fizz:
2 NaHCO3 (aq) + C6H8O7 (aq) 3 CO2 (g) + 3 H2O (l) + Na3C6H5O7 (aq)
A. What mass of C6H8O7 should be used for every 1.0 X 102 mg NaHCO3?
B. What mass of CO2 (g) could be produced from such a mixture?
Nitric acid is produced commercially by the Ostwald process, represented by the
following equations:
4 NH3 (g) + 5 O2 (g) 4 NO (g) + 6 H2O (g)
2 NO (g) + O2 (g) 2 NO2 (g)
3 NO2 (g) + H2O (l) 2 HNO3 (aq) + NO (g)
What mass of NH3 must be used to produce 1.0 X 106 kg. HNO3 by the Ostwald
process, assuming 100% yield in each reaction?
 SIMULATANEOUS AND
CONSECUTIVE REACTIONS
When two or more reactions are involved in stoichiometric
calculations, each molar relationship must be taken into
account.
Example:
In steelmaking, a three-step process leads to conversion of
Fe2O3 into metallic Fe.
1. 3 Fe2O3 + CO 2 Fe3O4 + CO2
2. Fe3O4 + CO 3 FeO + CO2
3. FeO + CO Fe + CO2
How many grams Fe are produced from 500.0 grams of
Fe2O3?
WANT = HAVE X CONVERSIONS
Simultaneous Reactions
A mixture of composition 60.0% ZnS and 40.0% CuS
are heated in air until the sulfides are completely
converted to oxides as shown by the following
equations.
2 ZnS + 3 O2 2 ZnO + 2 SO2
2 CuS + 3 O2 2 CuO + 2 SO2
How many grams of SO2 are produced from reaction
of 82.5 g of the sulfide mixture?
A mixture of composition 50.0% H2S and 50.0%
CH4 is reacted with oxygen, producing SO2, CO2,
and H2O. The equations for the reactions are
2 H2S + 3 O2 2 SO2 + 2H2O
CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O
How many grams of H2O are produced from the
reaction of 65.0 g of mixture?
Consecutive Reactions
How many grams of SO2 can be obtained from
50.0 g of KClO3 by the following two-step
chemical process?
2 KClO3 2KCl + 3 O2
S + O2 SO2
Limiting Reactants
Consider the reaction
Mg (s) + I2 (s) MgI2 (s)
Identify the limiting reagent in each of the reaction mixtures
below:
a. 100 atoms of Mg and 100 molecules of I2
b. 150 atoms of Mg and 100 molecules of I2
c. 200 atoms of Mg and 300 molecules of I2
d. 0.16 mole Mg and 0.25 mole I2
e. 0.14 mole Mg and 0.14 mole I2
f. 0.12 mole Mg and 0.08 mole I2
g. 6.078 g Mg and 63.455 g I2
h. 1.00 g Mg and 2.00 g I2
I. 1.00 g Mg and 20.00 g I2
Consider the reaction
2 H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2 H2 O (g)

Identify the limiting reagent in each of the reaction mixture

given below:
a. 50 molecules of H2 and 25 molecules of O2
b. 100 molecules of H2 and 40 molecules of O2
c. 100 molecules of H2 and 100 molecules of O2
d. 0.5 mole H2 and 0.75 mole O2
e. 0.80 mole H2 and 0.75 mole O2
f. 1.0 g H2 and 0.25 mole O2
g. 5.00 g H2 and 56.00 g O2
 LIMITING REACTANTS
STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS
Of Masses/Moles
USE DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Balance the reaction equation.
Convert Known masses to moles.

DETERMINE THE LIMITING REACTANT

Set up mole ratios from the equation.
Calculate Moles of desired product or reactant.
Convert from moles to mass as required.
Nitrogen (N2) and hydrogen (H2) react to
form ammonia (NH3). Consider the
mixture of N2 ( ) and H2 ( ) in a
closed container as illustrated below.

Assuming the reaction goes to completion, draw a

representation of the product mixture. Explain how you
arrived at this representation.
 SUMMARY

Use the coefficients in the balanced equation to

decide the amount of each reactant that is used, and
the amount of each product that is formed.
The coefficients in the balanced equation have
nothing to do with the amount of each reactant that is
given in the problem. The balanced equation
represents a ratio of reactants and products, not what
actually happens during a reaction.
Reactants are only placed on the left side of the
arrow, products are only placed on the right side of
the arrow.
 Methane (CH4) reacts with the oxygen
in the air to produce carbon dioxide and
water.
Ammonia (NH3) reacts with the oxygen
in the air to produce nitrogen monoxide
and water.
What mass of ammonia would produce
the same amount of water as 1.00 g of
methane reacting with excess oxygen?