Gaseous Fuel

By
A Nirala
Assistant Professor
Galgotias University
niralaiitk@gmail.com
1
 Introduction

There are numerous factors which need to be

taken into account when selecting a fuel for any
application.
Economics is the overriding consideration-the
capital cost of the combustion equipment
together with the running costs, which are fuel
purchasing and maintenance.

2
Natural Gas
Natural gas is obtained from
deposits in sedimentary rock
formations which are also
sources of oil
It is extracted from production
fields and piped (at
approximately 90 bar) to a
processing plant where
condensable hydrocarbons are
extracted from the raw product.
Natural Gas is a Fossil Fuel.
Fossil fuels are made from plants and
animals.

The energy in natural gas came

from energy stored in plants and
animals.

That energy came from the sun.

 The plants and
animals lived
millions of years
ago.

They were alive

before the
dinosaurs!

When they died,

they were
buried on the
ocean floor.
Over the years,
layers of mud
built up,
covering the
dead plants and
animals.

Heat and
pressure turned
the plants and
animals into
natural gas.
The main ingredient in
natural gas is
methane.

Methane is also
produced by
rotting garbage!
 The composition of a natural gas will vary
according to where it was extracted from, but
the principal constituent is always methane.
There are generally small quantities of higher
hydrocarbons together with around 1% by
volume of inert gas (mostly nitrogen)
The characteristics of a typical natural gas are:
Composition (% vol)
CH4 92
other HC 5
inert gases 3
Density (kg/m3) 0.7
Gross calorific value (MJ/m3) 41 8
Natural gas is found underground
in pockets of rock.

It is trapped in these pockets, just like water

is trapped in a sponge!
Natural gas is found thousands of feet
underground.

So how do we reach it?

We drill!
We drill down through layers of sand and
sedimentary rock to reach the rock formations
that contain natural gas deposits.
We drill wells into the ground.

These wells
pump out the
natural gas,
and bring it to
the surface.
 Moving Natural Gas

We move natural gas in pipes under the ground.

Underground Pipeline
Processing of Natural Gas

16
We use natural gas every day.

Most homes,
schools, and
hospitals use
natural gas
for heat.
 Many stoves and water
heaters use natural gas, too.
Natural gas is also an ingredient in
paint, glue, fertilizer, and many
other products!
 Sometimes, natural
gas is used to run cars,
trucks, and buses.

Most mail trucks

use natural gas
instead of
gasoline!
Power plants also use natural gas.

Power plants
burn natural
gas to make
electricity.
Natural gas has NO color or smell.

You cant
see it,
smell it,
or
taste it.
 Natural gas
companies add a
smell like rotten
eggs so that we
can detect any
natural gas leaks
in our homes.
 Natural gas is the cleanest
burning fossil fuel.
Compared to coal and
petroleum, natural gas
releases much less sulfur,
carbon, and ash when
burned
However, burning ANY
fossil fuel, including natural
gas, releases emissions
into the air, as well as
carbon dioxide- a
greenhouse gas.
Natural gas is Non-Renewable.

Natural gas formed over

millions of years.

We cant make more in a

short amount of time.

Thats why it is a non-

renewable energy source.
 CNG compressed natural gas
It is substitute fossil fuel for
DIESEL,PETROL,PROPANE
Typical Range
Component (Mole Percent) (Mole Percent)
Hydrocarbons Methane (C1) 92.77 83.74 98.22
Ethane (C2) 3.36 0.52 7.64
Propane (C3) 1.51 0.18 4.74
Iso-Butane (i-C4) 0.41 0.05 1.10
Normal Butane (n-C4) 0.47 0.06 1.63
Iso-Pentane (i-C5) 0.19 0.03 0.50
Normal Pentane (n-C5) 0.13 0.00 0.42
Hexane (C6) 0.27 0.09 0.78
Inerts Nitrogen (N2) 0.30 0.12 0.91
Helium (He) Trace 0.00 - 0.02
Impurities Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 0.59 0.13 - 1.86
Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) Trace 0.00 - 0.10
Oxygen (O2) Trace 0.00 3.00
Water (H2O) Trace 0.00 - 0.01
 Preparation
It is made by compressing the natural gas
(composed of methane) to less than 1% of
the volume at stnd. atmospheric pressure.
It is stored in hard cylindrical containers
at a pressure of 200-280 bars.
 Importance

It is cheap than other fuels

It is dispersed quickly when released
It is lighter than air
It releases less carbon into the atm
 Advantages
Due to absence of LEAD or BENGENE , lead fouling of
spark plugs is eliminated.
Low maintenance cost than other vehicles
Increases the life of lubricating oils
It mixes easily and evenly in air
It is less likely ignite on hot surfaces, bcz it has a high
auto ignition temp.(540c), and small range of
flammability (5%-15%).
Less pollution and more efficiency
Simplicity
Inexpensive onshore facilities
Can start with very modest transporting needs
Energy efficient
Can exploit isolated supply sources
Suitable for small demand markets
Major advantage in terms of market entry
 disadvantages
CNG vehicles requires greater
amount of space for fuel
storage than conventional
gasoline powered vehicles .
Since it is a compressed gas,
rather than a liquid like
gasoline, CNG takes up more
space for each gasoline gallon
equivalent(GGE).
 Solutions

Install the tanks under the body of the

vehicle, leaving the trunk free
Eg. Fiat multipla, Volkswagen Touran
Ecofuel,
Volkswagen Caddy Ecofuel.
Installation of tanks on the roof (typical on
buses).
 effects

CNG emits significantly less pollutants than

petrol such as
Carbon dioxide (CO2),
Unburned hydrocarbons (UHC),
Carbon monoxide (CO),
Nitrogen oxides (NOx),
And sulfur oxides(SOx) ,
 LNG
Natural Gas

LNG

LNG is natural gas that has been

cooled that it condenses to a
liquid
Temperature -256oF (-161oC)

Atmospheric pressure.

Volume is reduced 600 times

Thus economical to transport

locally and between continents in
specially designed ocean vessels
Liquefaction technology makes
natural gas available throughout
the world
 LNG is liquid form of the natural gas used for cooking, heating and
power generation.
The liquefaction process removes almost all contaminants
LNG must meet higher and lower limits on energy content
LNG composition has traditionally been set by markets in Japan, South
Korea, and Taiwan
LNG also is used in the U.S. as an alternative fuel for public
transportation systems.

LNG COMPOSITION (Mole Percent)

Source Methane Ethane Propane Butane Nitrogen
Alaska 99.72 0.06 0.0005 0.0005 0.20
Algeria 86.98 9.35 2.33 0.63 0.71
Baltimore Gas & Electric 93.32 4.65 0.84 0.18 1.01
New York City 98.00 1.40 0.40 0.10 0.10
San Diego Gas & Electric 92.00 6.00 1.00 - 1.00

Source: Liquid Methane Fuel Characterization and Safety Assessment Report . Cryogenic Fuels. Inc. Report
No. CFI-1600, Dec. 1991
35
 Comparison with lng
CNG
CNG is stored at high
pressure as a gas.
It has lower cost of
production storage
CNG requires a much
larger volume to store the
same mass of gasoline or
petrol and the use of very
high pressures nearly 3000
to 4000 psi, (or) 205 to 275
bar.
LNG
LNG is stored at very low
temperature as a liquid.
It has higher cost of
production and storage
LNG is often used for
transporting natural gas
over large distances, in
ships, trains or pipelines,
and the gas is then
converted into CNG.
Discussion Questions

What types of appliances use natural gas in

your house?

Have you ever had a natural gas leak in your

house?

What can happen to you if you breathe in

natural gas?
 Town gas (Coal Gas)
The original source of the gas which was
distributed to towns and cities by supply utilities
was from the gasification of coal.
The process consisted of burning a suitable grade
of coal in a bed with a carefully controlled air
supply (and steam injection) to produce gas and
also coke
This is still the gas supplied by utility companies in
many parts of the world (e.g. Hong Kong) and
there is continuing longer-term development of
coal gasification, since it is one of the most likely
ways of exploiting the substantial world reserves 38

of solid fuel
 It was first introduced into the UK and the
USA at the beginning of the 19th century
The gas was produced by heating the raw
coal in the absence of air to drive off the
volatile products.
This was essentially a two-stage process,
with the carbon in the coal being initially
oxidized to carbon dioxide, followed by a
reduction to carbon monoxide:
C + O2 CO2
CO2 + C 2CO
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 The volatile constituents from the coal were
also present, hence the gas contained some
methane and hydrogen from this source.
An improved product was obtained if
water was admitted to the reacting mixture,
the water being reduced in the so-called
water gas shift reaction:
C + H2O CO + H2

40
 This gas was produced by a cyclic process where
the reacting bed was alternately blown with air
and steam- the former exhibiting an exothermic,
and the latter an endothermic, reaction.
A typical town gas produced by this process has
the following properties:
Composition (% vol) H2 48
CO 5
CH4 34
CO2 13
Density (kg/m3) 0.6
Gross calorific value (MJ/m3) 20.2

41
 A more recent gasification process, developed since
1936, is the Lurgi gasifier
In this process the reaction vessel is pressurized, and
oxygen (as opposed to air) as well as steam is
injected into the hot bed
The products of this stage of the reaction are
principally carbon monoxide and hydrogen
Further reaction to methane is promoted by a nickel
catalyst at temperatures of about 250-350:
CO + 3H2 CH4+ H2O
The sulfur present in the coal can be removed by the
presence of limestone as follows:
H2 + S H2S
H2S + CaCO3 CaS +H2O +CO2 42
 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
LPG is a petroleum-derived product distributed
and stored as a liquid in pressurized containers.
LPG fuels have slightly variable properties, but
they are generally based on propane (C3H8) or the
less volatile butane (C4H10)
Compared to the gaseous fuel described above,
commercial propane and butane have higher
calorific values (on a volumetric basis) and higher
densities.
Both these fuels are heavier than air, which can
have a bearing on safety precautions in some
circumstances. 43
 Typical properties of industrial LPG are given
below:

Gas Propane Butane

Density (kg/m3) 1.7-1.9 2.3-2.5

Gross calorific value (MJ/m3) 96 122
Boiling point ( at 1 bar) -45 0

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 Producer Gas
producer gas, also called suction gas, specifically means a fuel gas
made from coke, anthracite or other carbonaceous material. Air is
passed over the red-hot carbonaceous fuel and carbon monoxide is
produced. The reaction is exothermic and proceeds as follows:

2C + O2 + 3.73 N2 2CO+ 3.73 N2

The nitrogen in the air remains unchanged and dilutes the gas, giving it
a very low calorific value. The concentration of carbon monoxide in the
"ideal" producer gas was considered to be 34.7% carbon monoxide
(carbonic oxide) and 65.3% nitrogen. After "scrubbing", to remove tar,
the gas may be used to power gas turbines (which are well-suited to
fuels of low calorific value), spark ignited engines (where 100% petrol
fuel replacement is possible) or diesel internal combustion engines
(where 40% - 15% of the original diesel fuel is still used to ignite the
gas.
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 Water Gas
Water gas is a synthesis gas, containing carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
It is a useful product but requires careful handling due to its flammability
and the risk of carbon monoxide poisoning. The gas is made by passing
steam over a red-hot carbon fuel such as coke:

H2O + C H2 + CO (H = +131 kJ/mol)

The reaction is endothermic so the fuel must be continually re-heated to

keep the reaction going. In order to do this, an air stream, which
alternates with the vapor stream, is introduced for the combustion of
carbon to take place.
O2 + C CO2 (H = 393.5 kJ/mol)
Theoretically to make 6 L of water gas, 5 L of air is required.

Or alternatively to prevent contamination with nitrogen, energy can be

provided by using pure oxygen to burn carbon into carbon monoxide.

O2 + 2 C 2 CO (H = 221 kJ/mol) 46
In this case 1 L of oxygen will create 5.3 L of pure water gas.
 BIOGAS
Biogas typically refers to a mixture of different gases
produced by the breakdown of organic matter in the
absence of oxygen. Biogas can be produced from
raw materials such as agricultural waste, manure,
municipal waste, plant material, sewage, green
waste or food waste. It is a renewable energy source
and in many cases exerts a very small carbon
footprint.
Biogas can be produced by anaerobic digestion with
anaerobic bacteria, which digest material inside a
closed system, or fermentation of biodegradable
materials.
Biogas is primarily methane (CH4) and carbon
dioxide (CO2) and may have small amounts of 47
hydrogen sulfide (H2S), moisture and siloxanes.
The gases methane, hydrogen, and carbon
monoxide (CO) can be combusted or oxidized with
oxygen. This energy release allows biogas to be
used as a fuel; it can be used for any heating
purpose, such as cooking. It can also be used in a
gas engine to convert the energy in the gas into
electricity and heat.

Biogas can be compressed, the same way natural

gas is compressed to CNG, and used to power motor
vehicles. In the UK, for example, biogas is estimated
to have the potential to replace around 17% of
vehicle fuel. It qualifies for renewable energy
subsidies in some parts of the world. Biogas can be
cleaned and upgraded to natural gas standards, 48

when it becomes bio methane

 Combustion of Gaseous Fuels
Flammability Limits
Gaseous fuels are capable of being fully mixed
(i.e. at a molecular level) with the combustion
air.
However, not all mixtures of fuel and air are
capable of supporting, or propagating, a flame
Imagine that a region of space containing a
fuel/air mixture consists of many small
discrete (control) volumes.
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 If an ignition source is applied to one of these
small volumes, then a flame will propagate
throughout the mixture if the energy transfer
out of the control volume is sufficient to cause
ignition in the adjacent regions
Clearly the temperature generated in the control
volume will be greatest if the mixture is
stoichiometric, where as if the mixture goes
progressively either fuel-rich or fuel-lean, the
temperature will decrease.
When the energy transfer from the initial
control volume is insufficient to propagate a
flame, the mixture will be nonflammable. 50
 This simplified picture indicates that there will be
upper and lower flammability limits for any gaseous
fuel, and that they will be approximately
symmetrically distributed about the stoichiometric
fuel/air ratio.
Flammability limits can be experimentally
determined to a high degree of repeatability in an
apparatus developed by the US Bureau of Mines
Intimate mixing of the gas/air mixture is obtained by
recirculating the mixture with a pump.
Once this has been achieved, the cover plate is
removed and a spark is activated.
51
 The mixture is considered flammable if a flame
propagates upwards a minimum distance of 750 mm.
The limits are affected by temperature and
pressure but the values are usually quoted as
volume percentages at atmospheric pressure and
25.
Typical values for some gaseous fuels are:

Fuel Lower Explosion Limit (LEL) % Upper Explosion Limit

(UEL) %

Methane 5 15
Propane 2 10
Hydrogen 4 74
Carbon monoxide 13 74
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 Burning Velocity
The burning velocity of a gas-air mixture is the rate at
which a flat flame front is propagated through its
static medium, and it is an important parameter in the
design of premixed burners.
A simple method of measuring the burning velocity is
to establish a flame on the end of a tube similar to that
of a laboratory Bunsen burner
When burning is aerated mode, the flame has a
distinctive bright blue cone sitting on the end of the
tube.
The flame front on the gas mixture is travelling
inwards normally to the surface of this cone
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 Wobbe Number/Index
This characteristic concerns the interchangeability of
one gaseous fuel with another in the same equipment.
In very basic terms, a burner can be viewed in terms of
the gas being supplied through a restricted orifice into
a zone where ignition and combustion take place
The three important variables affecting the
performance of this system are the size of the orifice,
the pressure across it (or the supply pressure if the
combustion zone is at ambient pressure) and the
calorific value of the fuel, which determines the heat
release rate.
If two gaseous fuels are to be interchangeable, the
same supply pressure should produce the same heat 54

release rate.
 If we consider the restriction to behave like a sharp-
edged orifice plate, and if the cross-sectional area of the
orifice (A0) is much less than the cross-sectional area of
the supply pipe then the mass flow rate of fuel is given
by:
= CdA0 (2p)0.5
or in terms of volume flow rate:
0.5
2p
V Cd A0

where Cd is a discharge coefficient
is the density of fuel

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 The heat release rate, Q, will be obtained by
multiplying the volume flow rate by the volumetric
calorific value of the fuel:
0.5
2P
Q CVCd A0

If we have two fuels denoted as 1 and 2, we would
expect the same heat release from the same orifice
and the same pressure drop p, if
0.5 0.5
2p 2p
CV1Cd A0 CV2Cd A0

1
2
CV1 CV2
i.e. 0.5
1 0.5
2
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 This ratio is known as the Wobbe number of a
gaseous fuel and is defined as:

Gross calorific value (MJ/m3 )

Relative density (air=1)
0.5

Some typical Wobbe numbers are:

Fuel Wobbe number (MJ/m3)

Methane 55
Propane 78
Natural gas 50
Town gas 27
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