Life-Span Development

Twelfth Edition

Chapter 7:
Physical and Cognitive Development
In Early Childhood

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 BODY GROWTH AND CHANGE
Height and Weight:
Average growth is 2.5 inches and 5 to 7 pounds
per year during early childhood
Girls are only slightly smaller and lighter than boys
Trunks and legs lengthen; heads become more
proportional
Overall decline in body fat during preschool years
Two most important contributors to height
differences: ethnic origin and nutrition
 BODY GROWTH AND CHANGE
Brain growth slows during early childhood
Brain has reached 95% of adult volume by age 6
Changes in childs brain structure:
Myelination: nerve cells are covered and insulated
with a layer of fat cells
Increases the speed and efficiency of information
Important in the development of many abilities
Rapid, distinct spurts of growth and loss as brain
continues to reorganize itself
Most rapid growth takes place in frontal lobe areas
Planning, organizing new actions, maintaining attention
 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Gross motor skills:
Simple run-and-jump movements at age 3
Child becomes more adventurous at age 4
Child is self-assured and often takes hair-raising risks
at age 5
Fine motor skills:
Can pick up tiniest objects at age 3, but still a little
clumsy
Improved fine motor coordination at age 4
Has better eye, hand, and body coordination by age 5
 NUTRITION

Nutrition in children:
Percentage of overweight and obese children
has increased dramatically in recent decades
Contributes to a number of health
problems

Physical Activity:
Most children do not get the recommended
amount of physical activity per day
Boys are more likely than girls to engage in
moderate or vigorous activity
Younger children are more likely than older
children to engage in physical activities
Differences between schools
Trend toward reducing physical
education and recess time
 ILLNESS AND DEATH
Illness and Death:
Leading causes of death in U.S. children are:
Motor vehicle accidents
Cancer
Cardiovascular disease
Safety is influenced by family and home, school and peers, and
actions of the community
Exposure to parental smoking is another major danger to
children
 ILLNESS AND DEATH

State of the Worlds Children (UNICEF):

Mortality rate of children under 5 is the result
of a wide range of factors:
Nutritional health and knowledge of mothers
Level of immunization
Dehydration
Availability of maternal and child health services
Income and food availability in the family
Availability of clean water and safe sanitation
Overall safety of childs environment
 ILLNESS AND DEATH

The poor are the majority in nearly one of

every five nations in the world
Dramatic increase in number of young
children worldwide who have died from
HIV/AIDS
Typically transmitted from parents
Especially likely in countries with high
poverty and low education
 COGNITIVE CHANGES

Piagets Preoperational Stage (2-7):

Children begin to represent the world with words,
images, and drawings
Children form stable concepts and begin to reason
Cognitions are dominated by egocentrism and
magical beliefs
Preoperational: child does not yet perform
operations, or reversible mental actions
Children can only do mentally what they can do physically
 COGNITIVE CHANGES
Symbolic Function Substage (2-4):
Child gains the ability to mentally
represent an object that is not present
Egocentrism: the inability to distinguish
between ones own perspective and
someone elses perspective
Animism: the belief that inanimate
objects have lifelike qualities and are
capable of action
Childs drawings are fanciful, inventive,
and symbolic
 COGNITIVE CHANGES
Intuitive Thought Substage (4 to 7 years):
Children begin to use primitive reasoning and
want to know the answers to questions
Centration: centering attention on one
characteristic to the exclusion of all others
Conservation: altering a substances appearance
does not change its basic properties
Children may be able to conserve in one area but not
another
Conservation may appear earlier than Piaget originally
thought
COGNITIVE CHANGES
 COGNITIVE CHANGES
Type of conservation Number Matter Length

Initial presentation
Two identical rows Two identical balls Two sticks are
of objects shown to of clay shown to aligned in front of
child child child

Manipulation
One row is spaced Experimenter Experimenter
changes shape of moves one stick to
one ball right

Preoperational
childs answer to No, the longer row No, the longer one No, the one on
Are they still the has more has more top is longer
same?
 COGNITIVE CHANGES
Vygotskys Theory:
Children think and understand primarily through
social interaction
The mind is shaped by the cultural context
Zone of proximal development (ZPD): range of
tasks that are too difficult for the child alone but that
can be learned with guidance
Lower limit can be achieved by child working
independently
Upper limit can be achieved by child with adult guidance
Captures skills that are in the process of maturing
Scaffolding: changing level of support during a
teaching session
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z1aEqmC3Sq8&feature=PlayList&p=A9AE2347493C9968&playnext=1&playnext_from=PL&index=2
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SpC0INWo3o&feature=PlayList&p=A9AE2347493C9968&index=9
 COGNITIVE CHANGES
Vygotsky and Language:
Languageis used for social communication, solving tasks, and
monitoring ones own behavior
Private speech: use of language for self-regulation
Language and thought develop independently of each other and
then merge
Child uses language to communicate with others before she/he
can focus on inward thoughts
Transition to use of internal speech occurs between ages 3 and
7 and is followed by action without speaking aloud
Children who use private speech more are typically more
socially competent
Research finds private speech is used more during difficult
tasks; users are more attentive and perform better
 COGNITIVE CHANGES
Vygotskys Teaching Strategies:
Effectively assess childs ZPD
Use the childs ZPD in teaching
Use more-skilled peers as tutors
Monitor and encourage childs use of private
speech
Place instruction in a meaningful context
Transform the classroom with Vygotskian
ideas
COGNITIVE CHANGES
 COGNITIVE CHANGES
Evaluating Vygotskys Theory:
Social constructivist approach:
emphasizes the social contexts of learning
and the construction of knowledge through
social interaction
Criticisms:
Vygotsky overemphasized the role of language
Possible problems with collaboration and
guidance
 COGNITIVE CHANGES
Information Processing Approach:
A childs ability to pay attention improves
significantly during the preschool years
Deficiencies in memory:
Salient versus relevant dimensions: young
children will pay attention to flashy, attractive
stimuli even when it is not relevant
Planfulness: young children do not tend to
engage in systematic plans for analysis
 The Planfulness of Attention

J J

(a) (b)
In three pairs of houses, all In three pairs of houses, the
windows were identical. windows were different.
By filming the reflection in childrens eyes, one could
determine what they looked at, how long they looked,
and the sequence of their eye movements. Children
under 6 were different from older children in this study.

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 COGNITIVE CHANGES
Memory:
Short-term: individuals can retain
information up to 30 seconds with no
rehearsal
Short-term memory generally increases during
early childhood but varies between individuals
Speed and efficiency of memory processes
improve with age and experience
Memory becomes more accurate with age
Young children can remember a great amount of
information when given the right cues and
prompts
Developmental Changes in Memory Span
8
In one study,
7
memory span
6 increased
5
from 3 digits
at age 2, to 5
4 digits at age
Digit 7, to 7 digits
Span 3
at age 12.
2
1
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 Adult
Age (years)
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 COGNITIVE CHANGES
How accurate are young childrens long-term
memories?
There are age differences in childrens
susceptibility to suggestion
Preschoolers are more suggestible than older children
There are individual differences in susceptibility
Low self-concept, low support from parents, and
mothers insecure attachment in romantic relationships
leads to increased suggestibility
Interviewing techniques can produce substantial
distortions in childrens reports about highly
salient events
 COGNITIVE CHANGES

Theory of Mind: awareness of ones

own mental process and the mental
processes of others
Age 18 months 3 years: children
begin to understand three mental
states perceptions, desires, and
emotions
Age 3 to 5: children understand
false beliefs, and that people can be
mistaken
Children demonstrate an inability
to think about thinking
Potential problems with false
belief studies
 COGNITIVE CHANGES
Only beyond preschool years (5 to 7
years of age) do children have a
deepening appreciation of the mind itself
In middle and late childhood, children
understand beliefs are interpretive and that
the mind is an active constructor of
knowledge
In early adolescence, children begin to
understand that people can have ambivalent
feelings or experience conflicting feelings at
the same time
 COGNITIVE CHANGES
Gender Differences in Theory of Mind:
Some research suggests that girls understand
false beliefs earlier than boys
Parents tend to discuss emotions more with daughters
than with sons
Girls tend to have better overall language ability

Theory of Mind and Autism:

Autism leads to large deficits in theory of mind
Especially difficult to understand others beliefs and
emotions
Individual variation in autistic children
Theory-of-mind difficulties may be due to other
aspects of cognition
 EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
Variations in Early Childhood Education:
Child-centered kindergarten: emphasizes the
education of the whole child and concern for his
or her physical, cognitive, and socioemotional
development
Montessori approach: teacher is a facilitator;
child is given freedom and spontaneity
Young children learn best through active,
hands-on teaching methods
Educational practices should be
developmentally appropriate, taking into
consideration the uniqueness of the child
EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
Education for
Disadvantaged Children:
Project Head Start:
Federally funded, created in
1965
Not all programs in the U.S.
are of equal quality
Seeks to intervene where
there is a lack of enriched
early childhood educational
experiences

Evaluations support the

positive influence of quality
early childhood programs
for disadvantaged young
children
 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
CHAPTER 8:
SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY
CHILDHOOD

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 THE SELF
Initiative Versus Guilt (Erikson):
During early childhood, children must
discover who they are
They often identify strongly with
their parents
Children use their perceptual, motor,
cognitive, and language skills to make
things happen
They discover that conscience must
govern exploration
Guilt can lower self-esteem

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 THE SELF
Self-Understanding: the representation of self;
the substance and content of self-conceptions
Childrens self-descriptions involve body attributes,
material possessions, and physical activities
Descriptions are often unrealistically positive
Children begin to describe themselves and others in
terms of psychological traits at about age 4 to 5
Children begin to understand that people do not
always give accurate reports of their beliefs

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 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Self-Conscious Emotions: emotions such as

pride, shame, embarrassment, and guilt
Child must be able to refer to themselves and be aware
of themselves as distinct from others
Appears about 18 months of age

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 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

As children age, there is increased:

Ability to understand emotions
Ability to talk about ones own and others emotions
Ability to reflect on emotions
Understanding that the same event can elicit different
feelings in different people
Awareness that emotions need to be managed to meet
social standards

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 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Parents play an important role in childs emotional
regulation
Emotion-coaching: parents monitor their childs emotions,
view them as opportunities for teaching, and coach them in
how to deal with emotions effectively
Emotion-dismissing: parents view their role as to deny,
ignore, or change negative emotions
Ability to manage ones emotions is important in
determining the success of a childs peer
relationships
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 MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Moral Development: the development of

thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding rules
and conventions about what people should do in
their interactions with other people

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 MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Moral Feelings:
Psychoanalytic theory emphasizes feelings of anxiety
and guilt
Children identify with parents to reduce anxiety and avoid
punishment
Superego: moral element of personality
Other, more positive emotions contribute to childs
moral development
Example: empathy, which involves perspective-taking

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 MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Moral Reasoning (Piaget):
4 to 7: heteronomous morality
Justice and rules are unchangeable properties of the world
Behavior is judged based on its consequences only
Immanent justice: if a rule is broken, punishment will be
given immediately
7 to 10: transitional phase
10 and older: autonomous morality
Rules and laws are created by people
Actions and intentions should be judged

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 MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Parenting and Moral Development:
Research suggests that both parents and peers
contribute to childs moral maturity
Relational quality, parental discipline, proactive
strategies, and conversational dialogue are particularly
important
Parents should proactively avert potential misbehavior
before it takes place
Use of diversions
Conversations about values and beliefs

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 GENDER
Social Theories of Gender:
Social Role Theory: gender differences result from the
contrasting roles of women and men
Psychoanalytic Theory: the preschool child develops a
sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent (Oedipus or
Electra complex)
Problems with Freuds theory
Social Cognitive Theory: gender development occurs
through observing and imitating what other people say and
do
Reward and punishment for gender-appropriate and gender-
inappropriate behavior

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 GENDER

Parental Influences:
Mothers Socialization Strategies:
Mothers socialize daughters to be more obedient and
responsible than sons
Mothers place more restrictions on daughters autonomy
Fathers Socialization Strategies:
Fathers show more attention to sons than daughters, engage
in more activities with sons, and put more effort into
promoting sons intellectual development

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GENDER
Peer Influences:
Peers extensively reward and
punish gender behavior
Greater pressure for boys to
conform to traditional gender roles

Childrens Groups:
Children show preference toward
same-sex playmates by age 3
From age 5 onward, boys are more
likely than girls to form large
groups and participate in organized
group games
Boys engage in rough play,
competition, conflict, etc.
Girls engage in collaborative
discourse

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GENDER
Cognitive Influences:
Social cognitive theory:
gender develops through
observation, imitation,
rewards, and punishment
Gender schema theory:
gender typing emerges as
children develop gender
schemas of appropriate and
inappropriate behavior within
their culture
Schema: network of
associations that guide an
individuals perceptions
Gender schema: organizes
the world in terms of male
and female
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 PARENTING
Baumrinds Parenting Styles:
Authoritarian: restrictive style in
which parents demand obedience and
respect
Parent places firm limits and does
not allow discussion
Parent rigidly enforces rules but
rarely explains them
Children are often unhappy, fearful,
and anxious
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Authoritative: encourages children to
be independent while placing limits
and controls on actions
Extensive verbal give-and-take
Parents expect mature,
independent, age-appropriate
behavior
Children are often cheerful, self-
controlled, and self-reliant
 PARENTING

Baumrinds Parenting Styles (continued):

Neglectful: parent is very uninvolved in childs life
Children feel that other aspects of the parents life are more
important than they are
Children tend to be socially incompetent, immature, and
have low self-esteem
Indulgent: parents are highly involved but place few
demands or controls on the child
Children never learn to control their own behavior and
always expect to get their way
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PARENTING
Corporal Punishment:
Cross-culturally, U.S. and
Canada are among those most
favoring corporal punishment

Correlational research shows use

of corporal punishment is:
Associated with higher levels
of immediate compliance,
aggression, and antisocial
behavior in children
Associated with lower levels
of moral internalization and
mental health

Alternatives include use of time-

outs, reasoning with child, positive
reinforcement, loss of privileges
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CORPORAL PUNISHMENT IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

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CHILD MALTREATMENT
Types of Child Maltreatment:
Physical abuse: infliction of physical
injury
Child neglect: failure to provide for the
childs basic needs
Can be physical, educational, or
emotional
Sexual abuse: fondling, rape, incest,
intercourse, sodomy, exhibitionism,
commercial exploitation
Emotional abuse: acts or omissions by
caregivers that have caused, or could
cause, serious behavioral, cognitive, or
emotional problems

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CHILD MALTREATMENT

The Context of Abuse:

No single factor causes child
maltreatment
Contributing factors:
Culture
Family
Developmental characteristics of
child

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 CHILD MALTREATMENT

Developmental consequences of abuse:

Poor emotional regulation
Attachment problems
Difficulty in school and peer relations
Other psychological problems, such as
depression and delinquency
Child victims show difficulty in establishing
and maintaining healthy intimate
relationships
Also display increased violence in adult
relationships

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THE CHANGING FAMILY

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 THE CHANGING FAMILY
Divorced Families:
Children from divorced families generally show poorer adjustment than
children from intact families
Divorce can be advantageous if marital problems are affecting the well-
being of the children
Conflict in non-divorced families is associated with emotional problems in children

Divorced Families (continued):

Adjustment for children improves when parents relationship is harmonious
and when they use authoritative parenting

Child Risk and Vulnerability Factors:

Childs adjustment prior to divorce
Childs personality, temperament, and gender
Custody situation

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 THE CHANGING FAMILY
Gay Male and Lesbian Parents:
20% of lesbians and 10% of gay men
are parents
Children may have born to their
natural parents, now divorced (and
with a gay partner), some through
donor insemination and surrogates;
some are adopted
Research has found no evidence that
children growing up with lesbian
mothers or gay fathers are any
different from those living with
heterosexual parents

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 THE CHANGING FAMILY
Cultural Variations:
Important cross-cultural variations in parenting
Many cultures are changing due to increased globalization
Trend toward greater distances between family members

Ethnic Variations:
Families within different ethnic groups differ in size, structure,
composition, reliance on kinship networks, and levels of income and
education
Large and extended families are more common among minority groups than
among Whites
Single-parent families are more common among Blacks and Latinos than
among Whites
Ethnic minority parents tend to be less educated and are more likely than
Whites to live in low-income circumstances
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 THE CHANGING FAMILY
Socioeconomic Variations:
On average, lower-SES parents:
Are more concerned that children conform to societys
expectations
Create a home with more obvious parental authority
Use physical punishment more often
Are more directive and less conversational with their children
On average, higher-SES parents:
Are more concerned with developing childs initiative
Create an atmosphere with more equality and discussion
Are less likely to use physical punishment
Are less directive and more conversational with their children

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 PLAY
Play: a pleasurable Theorists have focused on
activity that is engaged different aspects of play:
in for its own sake Freud and Erikson: play
helps child master anxieties
and conflicts
Play therapy
Piaget: play advances
cognitive development;
childrens cognitive
development constrains the
way they play
Vygotsky: play is an
excellent setting for
cognitive development
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 PLAY
Types of Play:
Sensorimotor play: behavior by infants to derive pleasure
from exercising their sensorimotor schemes
Practice play: the repetition of behavior when new skills
are being learned or mastered
Pretense/symbolic play: occurs when the child transforms
the physical environment into a symbol
Social play: play that involves interaction with peers
Constructive play: combines sensorimotor/practice play
with symbolic representation
Games: activities that are engaged in for pleasure and have
rules

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 TELEVISION
Children watch an average of 24 hours of television each day
Television can have a negative influence:
Makes children passive learners
Distracts them from homework
Teaches stereotypes
Provides violent models of aggression
Presents an unrealistic view of the world
Television can have a positive influence:
Presents motivating educational programs
Increases information about the broader world
Provides models of prosocial behavior

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 TELEVISION AND AGGRESSION
Effects of Television on Increased concern about realistic
Childrens Aggression: violent video games
Research demonstrates that Television can also teach children about
exposure to TV violence can positive, prosocial behavior
cause increased aggression
in children
Watching television violence
as a child has been linked
with aggression years later

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