RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY
Resource Person:
Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum
 RESEARCH PROCESS
Steps in Research Process:
1) Formulating the Research Problem

2) Extensive Literature Review

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

3) Developing the objectives

4) Preparing the Research Design including

Sample Design
5) Collecting the Data

6) Analysis of Data

7) Generalization and Interpretation

8) Preparation of the Report or Presentation of

Results-Formal write ups of conclusions
reached. 2
 STEP 4. PREPARING THE RESEARCH
DESIGN:

DETERMINING SAMPLE DESIGN

Researchers usually draw conclusions about large
groups by taking a sample.

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

A Sample is a segment of the population selected to
represent the population as a whole.
The researcher must decide the way of selecting a
sample or what is popularly known as the sample
design. In other words, a sample design is a definite
plan determined before any data are actually
collected for obtaining a sample from a given
population.

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 STEP 4. PREPARING THE RESEARCH
DESIGN:
DETERMINING SAMPLE DESIGN (cont.)
Designing the sample calls for three decisions:
1. Who will be surveyed? ( The Sample)
The researcher must determine what type of information is

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

needed and who is most likely to have it.
2. How many people will be surveyed? (Sample Size)
Large samples give more reliable results than small samples.
However it is not necessary to sample the entire target
population.
3. How should the sample be chosen? (Sampling)
Sample members may be chosen at random from the entire
population ( probability sample)
The researcher might select people who are easier to obtain
information from ( nonprobability sample)
The needs of the research project will determine which 4
method is most effective.
 STEP 4. PREPARING THE RESEARCH
DESIGN:
DETERMINING SAMPLE DESIGN (cont.)
Probability samples:
1. Simple random sample: Every member of the population has a
known and equal chance of being selected. Just like selection

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

through a lottery.
2. Systematic sample: This procedure is useful when sampling
frame is available in the form of a list. In such a design the
selection process starts by picking some random point in the list
and then every nth element is selected until the desired number
is secured.
3. Stratified random sample: Population is stratified or divided into
mutually exclusive groups or strata such as age groups and
random samples are drawn from each stratum.
4. Cluster(area)sample: Cluster sampling involves grouping the
population and then selecting the groups or the clusters rather 5
than individual elements for inclusion in the sample.
 STEP 4. PREPARING THE RESEARCH
DESIGN:
DETERMINING SAMPLE DESIGN (cont.)
Nonprobability samples:
1. Convenience sample: The population elements are selected for

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inclusion in the sample based on the ease of access.

2. Judgment sample: The researcher uses his/her judgment to select

population members who are good prospects for accurate information.

3. Quota sample: The researchers/ interviewers are simply given quota to

be filled from different strata, the actual selection of items for sample
being left to the interviewers judgment.

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 STEP 5. DATA COLLECTION:
Virtually all studies, from surveys to randomized
experimental trials, require some form of data collection
and entry. Data represent the fruit of researchers labor
because these provide the information that will
ultimately allow them to describe phenomena, predict

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

events, identify and quantify differences between
conditions, and establish the effectiveness of
interventions.

Because of their critical nature, data should be treated

with the utmost respect and care. In addition to ensuring
the confidentiality and security of personal data, the
researcher should carefully plan how the data will be
logged, entered, transformed (as necessary), and
organized into a database that will facilitate accurate and 7
efficient statistical analysis.
 STEP 5. DATA COLLECTION:
There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data
which differ considerably in context of money costs, time
and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
Primary data can be collected either through experiment
or through survey.

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

The term experiment is defined as the systematic
procedure carried out under controlled conditions in
order to discover an unknown effect, to test or establish a
hypothesis, or to illustrate a known effect. When
analyzing a process, experiments are often used to
evaluate which process inputs have a significant impact
on the process output, and what the target level of those
inputs should be to achieve a desired result (output).
If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes
some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the 8
help of which he examines the truth contained in his
hypothesis.
 STEP 5. DATA COLLECTION:
In the case of a survey, data can be collected by any
one or more of the following ways:

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

1. By observation
2. Through personal interview
3. Through telephone interviews
4. By mailing of questionnaires
5. Through schedules

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 STEP 5. DATA COLLECTION:
By observation:
This method implies the collection of information by
way of investigators own observation, without

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

interviewing the respondents. The information
obtained relates to what is currently happening and
is not complicated by either the past behavior or
future intentions or attitudes of respondents. This
method is no doubt an expensive method and the
information provided by this method is also very
limited. As such this method is not suitable in
inquiries where large samples are concerned.

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 STEP 5. DATA COLLECTION:
Through personal interview:
The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks
answers to a set of pre-conceived questions through

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

personal interviews. This method of collecting data
is usually carried out in a structured way where
output depends upon the ability of the interviewer to
a large extent.

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 STEP 5. DATA COLLECTION:
Through telephone interviews:
This method of collecting information involves
contacting the respondents on telephone itself. This

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

is not a very widely used method but it plays an
important role in industrial surveys in developed
regions, particularly, when the survey has to be
accomplished in a very limited time.

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 STEP 5. DATA COLLECTION:
By mailing of questionnaires:
The researcher and the respondents do not come in
contact with each other if this method of survey is

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

adopted. Questionnaires are mailed to the
respondents with a request to return after
completing the same. It is the most extensively used
method in various economic and business surveys.
Before applying this method, usually a Pilot Study
for testing the questionnaire is conducted which
reveals the weaknesses, if any, of the questionnaire.
Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very
carefully so that it may prove to be effective in
collecting the relevant information. 13
 STEP 5. DATA COLLECTION:
Through schedules:
Under this method the enumerators are appointed
and given training. They are provided with

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

schedules containing relevant questions. These
enumerators go to respondents with these schedules.
Data are collected by filling up the schedules by
enumerators on the basis of replies given by
respondents. Much depends upon the capability of
enumerators so far as this method is concerned.
Some occasional field checks on the work of the
enumerators may ensure sincere work.

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 STEP 5. DATA COLLECTION:
Tools For Data Collection (Research Instruments):
The construction of a research instrument or tool for
data collection is the most important aspect of a

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

research project because anything you say by way of
findings or conclusions is based upon the type of
information you collect, and the data you collect is
entirely dependent upon the questions that you ask
your respondents. The famous saying about
computers- garbage in garbage out- is also
applicable for data collection. The research tool
provides the input into a study and therefore the
quality and validity of the output (the findings), are
solely dependent on it. 15
 STEP 5. DATA COLLECTION:
Tools For Data Collection (cont.):
Guidelines to Construct a Research Instrument:
The underlying principle behind the guidelines
suggested below is to ensure the validity of your

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

instrument by making sure that your questions relate
to the objectives of your study.
Step I: Clearly define and individually list all the
specific objectives or research questions for your study.
Step II: For each objective or research question, list all
the associated questions that you want to answer
through your study.
Step III: Take each research question listed in step II
and list the information required to answer it.
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Step IV: Formulate question(s) to obtain this
information.
 STEP 6. DATA ANALYSIS:
Processing of data is a prerequisite activity for the
analysis of collected data.

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

Processing and analyzing data involves a number of
closely related operations which are performed with
the purpose of summarizing the collected data and
organizing these in a manner that they answer the
research questions (objectives).

The Data Processing operations are 1) editing, 2)

classification, 3) coding, and 4) tabulation.
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 STEP 6. DATA ANALYSIS:

1) Editing:
Process of examining the collected raw data to detect
errors and omissions and to correct these when

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

possible.
2) Classification:
Process of arranging data in groups or classes on the
basis of common characteristics.
3) Coding:
Operation through which the categories of data are
transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and
counted. After coding the data is ready for
tabulation. 18
 STEP 6. DATA ANALYSIS:
4) Tabulation:
Process of summarizing raw data and displaying the
same in compact form for further analysis. It is an
orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows.

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

Tabulation is essential because:
a) It conserves space and reduces explanatory and
descriptive statement to a minimum.

b) It facilitates the process of comparison.

c) It facilitates the summation of items and the detection

of errors and omissions.

d) It provides the basis for various statistical 19

computations.
 STEP 6. DATA ANALYSIS:

Afterthe tabulation activity is over the data

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

is ready for analysis. Depending on the
nature of data, it could be either qualitative
or quantitative analysis.

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 STEP 6. DATA ANALYSIS:
Qualitative Data Analysis:
Qualitative data analysis is a very personal process
with few rigid rules and procedures. For this

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

purpose, the researcher needs to go through a
process called Content Analysis.
Content Analysis means analysis of the contents of
an interview in order to identify the main themes
that emerge from the responses given by the
respondents .This process involves a number of
steps:

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 STEP 6. DATA ANALYSIS:
Qualitative Data Analysis: (cont.)
Step 1. Identify the main themes.

The researcher needs to carefully go through the descriptive

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

responses given by respondents to each question in order to
understand the meaning they communicate. From these
responses the researcher develop broad themes that reflect
these meanings.
People use different words and language to express
themselves. It is important that researcher select wording of
the theme in a way that accurately represents the meaning of
the responses categorized under a theme. These themes
become the basis for analyzing the text of unstructured
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interviews.
 STEP 6. DATA ANALYSIS:
Qualitative Data Analysis: (cont.)
Step 2. Assign codes to the main themes:

If the researcher wants to count the number of times a theme

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

has occurred in an interview, he/she needs to select a few
responses to an open-ended question and identify the main
themes. He/she continues to identify these themes from the
same question till a saturation point is reached. Write these
themes and assign a code to each of them, using numbers or
keywords.
Step 3. Classify responses under the main themes:

Having identified the themes next step is to go through the

transcripts of all the interviews and classify the responses
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under the different themes.
 STEP 6. DATA ANALYSIS:
Qualitative Data Analysis: (cont.)
Step 4. Integrate themes and responses into the text of your
report:

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

Having identified responses that fall within different themes,
the next step is to integrate into the text of your report. While
discussing the main themes that emerged from their study,
some researchers use verbatim responses to keep the feel of
the response. There are others who count how frequently a
theme has occurred, and then provide a sample of the
responses. It entirely depends upon the way the researcher
wants to communicate the findings to the readers.

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 STEP 6. DATA ANALYSIS:
Quantitative Data Analysis:
This method is most suitable for large well designed and
well administered surveys, using properly constructed and
worded questionnaire, as well as for experimental data. Data

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

can be analyzed either manually or with the help of a
computer.
Manual Data Analysis: This can be done if the number of
respondents is reasonably small, and there are not many
variables to analyze. However, this is useful only for
calculating frequencies and for simple cross-tabulations.
Manual data analysis is extremely time consuming. The
easiest way to do this is to code it directly onto large graph
paper in columns. Detailed headings can be used or question
numbers can be written on each column to code information 25
about the question.
 STEP 6. DATA ANALYSIS:
Quantitative Data Analysis: (cont.)
Data Analysis Using a Computer: When the data is
large the efficient approach is to use a computer to

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

log and analyze data. The knowledge of computer
and statistics plays an important role and, therefore,
can be taken as a prerequisite for a researcher.

Microsoft Access, Microsoft Excel, FileMaker, SPSS,

SAS are the computer programs often used for the
purpose of logging and analysis of the data.

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 STEP 7. GENERALIZATION &
INTERPRETATION:
After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a
position to test the hypotheses, if any, he had
formulated earlier.
Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

to be contrary? This is the usual question which
should be answered while testing hypotheses.
If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it
may be possible for the researcher to arrive at
generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of
fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to
arrive at certain generalizations.
If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with,
generalizations established on the basis of data may
be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent 27
researches in times to come.
 STEP 7. GENERALIZATION &
INTERPRETATION:

If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he

might seek to explain his findings on the basis of
some theory. It is known as interpretation.

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

The process of interpretation may quite often trigger
off new questions which in turn may lead to further
researches.

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 STEP 8. PREPARATION OF REPORT:
Finally, every researcher has to prepare the report
of what has been done by him. Writing of report
must be done with great care keeping in view the
following:

Prof Dr Salim Abid Tabassum

1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the
preliminary pages; (ii) the main text, and (iii) the end
matter.
2. Report should be written in a concise and objective
style in simple language avoiding vague expressions
such as it seems, there may be, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be
used only if they present the information more clearly
and forcefully.
4. Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned and
the various constraints experienced in conducting 29
research operations may as well be stated.