Parts of a substation

1. Primary power lines

2. Ground wire
3. Overhead lines
4. Transformer for measurement of electric voltage
5. Disconnect switch
6. Circuit breaker
7. Current transformer
8. Lightning arrester
9. Main transformer
10. Control building (AC,DC, DG Set)
11. Security fence
12. Secondary power lines
Bus Schemes
 Single Bus Scheme

Advantage Lowest cost

BUS ISOLATOR
Disadvantage:
Maintenance without
BREAKER interruption of supply is
not possible.
CURRENT Supply can not be
TRANSFORMER extended without
completely de-energizing
the sub station.
POWER Can be used only where
TRANSFORMER loads can be interrupted or
have other supply
arrangements. Least
flexibility.
3

3
 Single Bus With Sectionaliser
BUS SECTION-1 BUS SECTION-2

SECTIONALISER ISOLATOR

BREAKER
CURRENT
TRANSFORMER

POWER
TRANSFORMER
Where double feed is provided for any single load it is preferable to have
one circuit from each section.

In this arrangement each section behaves as a separate bus bar and any
outage can be confined to one section of the bus bar.

Only the faulty section will be tripped by bus differential protection.

Sectionalizing the single bus improves slightly the reliability if the incoming4
and out going circuits are distributed evenly on both the sections.
4
 Double Bus Scheme
This arrangement has the
following advantages:
BUS-1 Each load may be fed
from either bus.
Operational flexibility
may be increased by
grouping the incoming
BUS-2 and out going feeders in
separate groups.
Either bus bar can be
taken out for
maintenance.
Bus coupler helps in on
BUS COUPLER load change over from
one bus to the other.
BREAKER Adopted where load and
continuity justify
additional cost.
BREAKER
A major disadvantage is
that the breaker can not
POWER be taken out for
TRANSFORMER
maintenance without
interrupting supply to the
concerned circuit. 5

5
 DOUBLE MAIN BUS & CB BYPASS ISOLATOR SYSTEM

T/F-1 T/F-2

BAY1 BAY2 BAY4 BAY6 BAY7

BUS-1

BUS COUPLER
BUS-2 BAY3 BAY5

FOR ANY CB PROBLEM OR FOR PREVENTIVE

MAINTANENCE, SUCH FEEDER CAN BE SHIFTED
TO ANOTHER BUS AND THE BYPASS ISOLATOR IS
CLOSED, THEN PROTECTION IS TRANSFERRED
TO BUS COUPLER AND THE FAULTY CB CAN BE
ISOLATED.

FEEDER1 FEEDER2 FEEDER3 FEEDER4

6
 Single Main and Transfer
MAIN BUS Alternative to double bus single breaker
arrangement which provided for change over
to either bus for carrying out maintenance on
other bus. But it provided no facility for
TIE breaker maintenance without interrupting
power supply to the concerned circuit.
BREAKER
Any breaker can be taken out of service for
BREAKER
maintenance. But not Bus

For maintenance on any breaker, the circuit is

changed over to the transfer bus and
controlled through the bus coupler breaker.

The cost is increased due to use of an extra

isolator for each circuit and providing interlock
TRANSFER for bus coupler and circuit isolators.
BUS Relaying sensitivity decreases as the same bus
coupler is used to energize the concerned
circuit for all the circuit breakers whenever
they are taken out for maintenance.

LINE LINE Failure of bus or any circuit breaker results in

shut down of entire sub station. 7

7
 DOUBLE MAIN BUS & TRANSFER BUS SYSTEM

T/F-1 T/F-2

BUS COUPLER
BUS-1

TRANSFER

COUPLER
BUS
BUS-2
BAY4
BAY1 BAY2 BAY3 TRANSFER BUS BAY6 BAY7 BAY8
BAY5
FEEDER1 FEEDER2 FEEDER3
FEEDER4

This arrangement provides more additional flexibility, continuity of Power Supply,

permits periodic maintenance without total shut down as the two main buses can be
operated independently with the same redundancy

8
 ISOLATOR

BREAKER

LINE

POWER TRANSFORMER

LINE
9

9
 RING BUS OR MESH SCHEME
THE
In this scheme theELECTRIC SUB
breakers are STATION
arranged in a ring with
circuits connected between breakers.

11/1/2017
There are the same number of circuits as there are breakers.

M L SHESHADRI
During normal operation, all breakers are closed. For a circuit
fault, two breakers are tripped, and in the event one of the
breaker fails to operate to clear the fault, an additional circuit
will be tripped by operation of breaker- failure back up relays.

During breaker maintenance, the ring is broken, but all lines

remain in service.
10

10
 THE ELECTRIC SUB STATION

11/1/2017
RING BUS OR MESH SCHEME
The circuits connected to the ring are arranged so that sources are
alternated with loads.

M L SHESHADRI
For an extended circuit outage, the line isolator may be opened
and the ring can be closed.
No changes to protective relays are required for any of the various
operating conditions or during maintenance.
The ring bus scheme is economical in cost, has good reliability, is
safe for operation, is flexible, and is normally considered suitable
for important sub stations up to a limit of five circuits.
It is common practice to build major sub stations initially as a ring
bus; for more than five outgoing circuits, the ring bus is usually
developed to the breaker-and-a-half scheme.
11

11
 THE ELECTRIC SUB STATION
One and a Half Breaker Arrangement.

This arrangement provides three circuit

breakers for every two circuits. It gives high
security against loss of supply but higher cost
is involved. Hence this is provided for
important 400/220 KV Sub Stations.

12
THE ELECTRIC SUB STATION
BREAKER -AND -A -HALF SCHEME

11/1/2017
BUS-1
ISOLATOR

M L SHESHADRI
BREAKER

LINE

TIE BREAKER

13

BUS-2 13
 I-CONFIGUARATION
FEEDER1 FEEDER3 FEEDER5 FEEDER7 FEEDER9 FEEDER11

BUS-1 DIA1 DIA2 DIA3 DIA4 DIA5 DIA6

BAY10

BAY13

BAY16
BAY4

BAY7
BAY1

BAY11

BAY14

BAY17
BAY8
BAY2

BAY5

BAY12

BAY18
BAY15
BAY9
BAY3

BAY6

BUS-2

14
FEEDER2 FEEDER4 FEEDER6 FEEDER8 FEEDER10 FEEDER12
 D-CONFIGUARATION
FEEDER1 FEEDER2 FEEDER5 FEEDER6 FEEDER9 FEEDER10

BAY2 BAY8 BAY14

BAY15
BAY13
BAY3

BAY9
BAY1

BAY7
DIA1 DIA3 DIA5

BUS-1

BUS-2

BAY18
BAY6

BAY10

BAY12

BAY16
BAY4

DIA2 DIA4 DIA6

BAY5 BAY11 BAY17

FEEDER3 FEEDER4 FEEDER7 FEEDER8 FEEDER11 FEEDER12

15
 BREAKER -AND -A -HALF SCHEME
THE ELECTRIC SUB STATION

11/1/2017
The breaker and a half scheme, some times called the
three switch scheme, has three breakers in series

M L SHESHADRI
between the main buses.

Two circuits are connected between the three

breakers, hence the term breaker and a half.

This pattern is repeated along the main buses so that

one and a half breakers are used for each circuit.
16

16
 THE ELECTRIC SUB STATION

11/1/2017
BREAKER -AND -A -HALF SCHEME
Under normal operating conditions all breakers are closed

M L SHESHADRI
and both buses are energized.
A circuit is tripped by opening the two associated circuit
breakers.
Tie breaker failure will trip one additional circuit, but no
additional circuit is lost if a line trip involves failure of a bus
breaker.
Either bus may be taken out of service at any time with no
loss of service.
With sources connected opposite loads, it is possible to
operate with both buses out of service.
Breaker maintenance can be done with no loss of service, no
relay changes, and simple operation of the breaker isolators.17

17
 BREAKER -AND -A -HALF SCHEME
THE ELECTRIC SUB STATION

11/1/2017
The breaker-and-a-half arrangement is more
expensive than other schemes, except the double-

M L SHESHADRI
breaker-double-bus scheme.

However, the breaker-and-a-half scheme is superior

in flexibility, reliability, and safety.

Protective relaying and automatic re-closing schemes

are more complex than for other schemes and hence
costly.
18

18
Current Transformers
Basic Theory

s
Basic Theory
IS

IP

1 Primary Turn
N Secondary Turns

For an ideal transformer :-

PRIMARY AMPERE TURNS = SECONDARY AMPERE TURNS

IP = N x IS

s
Basic Theory
IS

IP

ES R

For IS to flow through R there must be some potential -

ES = the E.M.F.

ES = IS x R

ES is produced by an alternating flux in the core.

ES d
dt
Basic Theory
NP
IP

NS

IS EK
ZCT
ZB

VO/P = ISZB = EK - ISZCT

s
 Basic
Formulae
Circuit Voltage Required :

ES = IS (ZB + ZCT + ZL) Volts

where :-

IS = Secondary Current of C.T. (Amperes)

ZB = Connected External Burden (Ohms)

ZCT = C.T Winding Impedance (Ohms)

ZL = Lead Loop Resistance (Ohms)

Require EK > ES

s
 Basic
Formulae
Maximum Secondary Winding Voltage : (1)
EK = 4.44 x B A f N Volts . 1

where :-

EK = Secondary Induced Volts

(knee-point voltage)
B = Flux Density (Tesla)

A = Core Cross-sectional Area

(square metres)

f = System Frequency (Hertz)

N = Number of Turns

s
 Simple Selection
Example Calculation : Example
C.T. Ratio = 2000 / 5A Max Flux Density = 1.6 T
RS = 0.31 Ohms Core C.S.A = 20 cm2
IMAX Primary = 40 kA

Find maximum secondary burden permissible if no saturation is to occur.

Solution : N = 2000 / 5 = 400 Turns

IS MAX = 40,000 / 400 = 100 Amps

From equation 1 the knee point voltage is :-

VK = (4.44 x 1.6 x 20 x 50 x 400) = 284 Volts

104

Therefore Maximum Burden = 284 / 100

= 2.84 Ohms

Hence Maximum CONNECTED burden :

2.84 - 0.31 = 2.53 Ohms

s
 Mag
Flux Density
Curv
(B) Tesla
(Wb/m2) 1.8
Material : Cross
es
1.6
Knee
1.4
Point
1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12

Magnetizing Force (H)
Ampere-Turns / mm
(Magnetic Field Strength : H,
A/m)
s
 Mag Curves
Cont...
ES
ES = 4.44 N f A B = Kv B
(Secondary where :- K v = 4.44 N f A
E.M.F.) (B in Wb/m2 ; A in m2)

Ie = H . L = Ki . H
N
where :-
Ki = L/N
L = mean magnetic path
in metres
H = amp. Turns / metre
Ie = Amps

(Magnetising Current) Ie

s
 Knee-Point Voltage
Definition
+10% Vk
Vk
Exciting Voltage

+50% Iek
(VS)

Iek
Exciting Current
s
(Ie)
 C.T. Equivalent
Ip
P1 Is
ZCT
Circuit
Ip/N Ie
S1
N Ze Es Vt Zb

Ip = Primary rating of C.T. Ie = Secondary excitation current

N = C.T. ratio Is = Secondary current

Zb = Burden of relays in ohms Es = Secondary excitation voltage
(r+jx) Vt = Secondary terminal voltage
ZCT = C.T. secondary winding across the C.T. terminals
impedance in ohms (r+jx)
Ze = Secondary excitation
impedance in ohms (r+jx)

s
 Phasor

Diagram
Ip/N
Ie

Is Ie
Im
Es
Ep Ic
Ep = Primary voltage Im = Magnetising current
Es = Secondary voltage Ie = Excitation current
= Flux Ip = Primary current
Ic = Iron losses (hysteresis & Is = Secondary current
eddy currents)

s
 Saturation

s
 Steady State
Saturation (1)
100A 100A E=
1A 1A 100V
100
100/1 E 1 ohm 100/1 E ohm
E=
1V

100A 100A E=?

1A 1A
10 1000
100/1 E E= 100/1 E
ohm ohm
10V

s
 Steady State
+V
Saturation (2)

0V
A

-V Time

Assume :- Zero residual flux

Switch on at point A

s
 Steady State
+V
Saturation (3)

0V
C

-V Time

Assume :- Zero residual flux

Switch on at point C

s
 Steady State
+V
Saturation (4)

0V
B

-V Time

Assume :- Zero residual flux

Switch on at point B

s
 Steady State
Saturation (5)
+V

Mag Core
Saturation

0V

Mag Core
Saturation

-V

Time

s
 Steady State
+V
Saturation
Prospective
(6)
Output Voltage
Mag Core
Saturation
0V
Mag Core
Saturation
-V

+V
Output lost due to
steady state
saturation
0V

-V Actual Output
Voltage
Time
s
 Transient
v = VM sin (wt + )
Saturation
R1 L1

Z1

i1

v = VM sin (wt + )
VM VM
i sin (wt - ) sin (
1 - ) . e -R1t / L1

R12 w L 1
Z1 Z1 2 2
where : - Z1

sin (wt - ) - sin ( tan-1 wL1

1 1 - ) . e -R1t / L1 R1
V
1 M
STEADY STATE TRANSIENT Z1

s
 Transient Saturation :
Resistive Burden
Required Flux
SAT

FLUX
Actual Flux

Mag Current
0

Primary Current
Secondary Current

CURRENT

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 M

s
 CT Types

s
 Current Transformer
Function
Two basic groups of C.T.

Measurement C.T.s
Limits well defined

Protection C.T.s
Operation over wide range of currents

Note : They have DIFFERENT characteristics

s
 Measuring
Measuring C.T.s
C.T.s
B
Require good accuracy up to
approx 120% rated current.
Protection C.T.
Require low saturation level to
protect instruments, thus use
nickel iron alloy core with low
exciting current and knee point
at low flux density.
Protection C.T.s
Accuracy not as important as
above.
Measuring C.T.
Require accuracy up to many
times rated current, thus use
grain orientated silicon steel
with high saturation flux
density. H

s
 CT Errors

s
 Current
Transformer
ZS
Ip

Ie
Is
Errors
Ze Es Zb

Ip/N

Ip/N Ie
Iq
Ie
I c I s Ie
Is
Es
Ep
s
 Current
Transformer
Transformer Error vs Primary Current
Error
Error

Current Error
Phase Error

Primary Current Rated

Current
Errors can be reduced by :-
1. Using better quality magnetic material
2. Shortening the mean magnetic path
3. Reducing the flux density in the core
s
 Current
Transformer
Current Error Definition. Errors
Error in magnitude of the secondary current, expressed as a percentage, given by
:-

Current error % = 100 (kn IS - Ip)

Ip

kn = Rated Transmission Ratio

Ip = Actual Primary Current
Is = Actual Secondary Current

Current Error is :-

+ve : When secondary current is HIGHER than the rated

nominal value.
-ve : When secondary current is LOWER than the rated
nominal value.
s
 Current
Transformer
Phase Error Definition.
Errors
The displacement in phase between the primary and secondary
current vectors, the direction of the vectors being chosen so the
angle is zero for a perfect transformer.

Phase Error is :-

+ve : When secondary current vector LEADS the

primary current vector.
-ve : When secondary current vector LAGS the
primary current vector.

s
 Current Transformer Ratings

s
 Current Transformer
Rated Burden Ratings (1)
Value of burden upon which accuracy claims are based
Usually expressed in VA
Preferred values :-
2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 15, 30 VA

Continuous Rated Current

Usually rated primary current

Short Time Rated Current

Usuallyspecified for 0.5, 1, 2 or 3 secs
No harmful effects
Usually specified with the secondary shorted

Rated Secondary Current

Commonly 1, 2 or 5 Amps

s
 Current Transformer
Rated Dynamic Current
Ratings (2)
Ratio of :-
IPEAK : IRATED
(IPEAK = Maximum current C.T. can withstand without
suffering any damage).

Accuracy Limit Factor - A.L.F.

(or Saturation Factor)

Ratio of :-
IPRIMARY : IRATED

up to which the C.T. rated accuracy is maintained.

e.g. 200 / 1A C.T. with an A.L.F. = 5 will maintain its

accuracy for IPRIMARY < 5 x 200 = 1000 Amps

s
 Choice of
Clearly, the primary rating
Ratio
IP normal current in the circuit
if thermal (continuous) rating is not to be exceeded.
Secondary rating is usually 1 or 5 Amps (0.5 and 2 Amp
are also used).
If secondary wiring route length is greater than 30
metres - 1 Amp secondaries are preferable.
A practical maximum ratio is 3000 / 1.
If larger primary ratings are required (e.g. for large
generators), can use 20 Amp secondary together with
interposing C.T.
e.g. 5000 / 20 - 20 / 1

s
 Current Transformer
Designation
Class P
Specified in terms of :-
i) Rated burden
ii) Class (5P or 10P)
iii) Accuracy limit factor (A.L.F.)
Example :-
15 VA 10P 20
To convert VA and A.L.F. into useful volts
Vuseful VA x ALF
IN

s
 BS
3938
Classes :- 5P, 10P. X
Designation (Classes 5P, 10P)
(ALF)
(Rated VA) (Class)

Multiple of rated current (IN) up to which declared

accuracy will be maintained with rated burden
connected.

5P or 10P.

Value of burden in VA on which accuracy claims

are based.
(Preferred values :- 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 15, 30 VA)

ZB = rated burden in ohms

= Rated VA
I N2
s
 Protection Current Transformers

Table 3 - Limits of Error for Accuracy Class 5P and 10P

Accuracy Current Error at Phase Displacement at Composite Error

Class rated primary rated primary current (%) at rated
current (%) Minutes Centiradians accuracy limit
primary current
5P 1 60 1.8 5

10P 3 10

s
 Current Transformer
Designation
Class X

Specified in terms of :-

i) Rated Primary Current

ii) Turns Ratio (max. error = 0.25%)

iii) Knee Point Voltage

iv) Mag Current (at specified voltage)

v) Secondary Resistance (at 75C)

s
 Choice of Current

Transformer
Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays
Class P Specification
A.L.F. = 5 usually sufficient
For high settings (5 - 15 times C.T rating)
A.L.F. = relay setting

IDMT Overcurrent Relays

Generally Class 10P
Class 5P where grading is critical

Note : A.L.F. X V.A < 150

Differential Protection
Class X Specification
Protection relies on balanced C.T output

s
 Selection Example

s
 Burden on Current
Transformers
1. Overcurrent : RCT + RL + Rr 2. Earth : RCT + 2RL + 2Rr

RCT RCT

RCT RCT
IF

RCT RCT
IF
RL RL RL RL RL IF RL RL RL
IF

Rr Rr Rr Rr Rr Rr Rr Rr

s
 Overcurrent Relay VK Check
If max = 7226 A = 0.26
RCT
Assume values :
C.T = 1000 / 5 A R = 0.02
7.5 VA 10P 20 r = 0.15
R
L
Check to see if VK is large enough :
Required voltage = VS = IF (RCT + Rr + RL)
= 7226 x 5 (0.26 + 0.02 + 0.15) = 36.13 x 0.43 = 15.54 Volts
1000

Current transformer VK approximates to :-

VK ~ VA x ALF + RCT x IN x ALF
In

= 7.5 x 20 + 0.26 x 5 x 20 = 56 Volts

5

VK > VS therefore C.T VK is adequate

s
 Earth Fault Relay VK Check

Assume values : As per overcurrent.

Note For earth fault applications require to be able to pass

10 x relay setting.

VK = 56 Volts
Check to see if VK is large enough :

Total load connected = 2RL + RCT + 2Rr

= 2 x 0.15 + 0.26 + 2 x 0.02
Maximum secondary current
= 56 = 93.33A
0.6

Typical earth fault setting = 30% IN

= 1.5A

Therefore C.T can provide > 60 x setting

C.T VK is adequate

s
 Voltage Transformers

s
 Voltage
Transformers
Provides isolation from high voltages

Must operate in the linear region to prevent

accuracy problems - Do not over specify VT

Must be capable of driving the burden, specified by

relay manufacturer

Protection class VT will suffice

s
 Typical Working Points on
Flux Density
a B-H Curve
B Saturation

1.6 Cross C.T.s & Power Transformers

Tesla 1.0 V.T.s

0.5 Protection C.T. (at full load)

H

1000 2000 3000

Magnetising Force
AT/m

s
 Types of Voltage
Transformers
Two main basic types are available:

Electromagnetic VT`s
Similar to a power transformer
May not be economical above 132kV

Capacitor VT`s (CVT)

Used at high voltages
Main difference is that CVT has a
capacitor divider on the front end.

s
 Electromagnetic Voltage
Transformer

= Kn RP LP RS LS

IP Ie IS

LM Re ZB
VP VS (burden)
EP = ES IM IC

s
 Basic Circuit of a
Capacitor V.T.
C1

VP T
ZB
C2 VS
VC2 Vi

s
 Ferro-
resonance
The exciting impedance of auxiliary transformer T and the
capacitance of the potential divider form a resonant circuit.

May oscillate at a sub normal frequency

Resonant frequency close to one-third value of system

frequency

Manifests itself as a rise in output voltage, r.m.s. value

being 25 to 50 per cent above normal value

Use resistive burden to dampen the effect

s
 VT
Earthing
Primary Earthing
Earth at neutral point
Required for phase-ground measurement at relay

Secondary Earthing
Required for safety
Earth at neutral point
When no neutral available - earth yellow phase
(VERY COMMON)
No relevance for protection operation

s
 VT
Constructio
5 Limb
n
Used when zero sequence measurement is
required (primary must also be earthed)
Three Single Phase
Used when zero sequence measurement is
required (primary must also be earthed)
3 Limb
Used where no zero sequence measurement is
required
V Connected (Open Delta)
No yellow phase
Cost effective
Two phase-phase voltages
No ground fault measurement

s
 VT
Connection
Broken Delta
s
V Connected
A B C N
a b c

da dn

a b c
a b c n

s
 VT Construction -
Residual
Used to detect earthfault
Useful where current operated protection cannot be
used
Connect all secondary windings in series

Sometimes referred to as `Broken Delta`

Residual Voltage is 3 times zero sequence voltage
VT must be 5 Limb or 3 single phase units

Primary winding must be earthed

s
 Voltage
Factors Vf

Vfis the upper limit of operating voltage.

Important for correct relay operation.

Earthfaults cause displacement of system neutral,

particularly in the case of unearthed or impedance
earthed systems.
 Protection of
VTs

H.R.C. Fuses on primary side

Fuses may not have sufficient interrupting capability

Use MCB

s
 Circuit Breakers

11/1/2017 Dr.Latif Shaikh

 Circuit Breaker
A circuit breaker is a piece of equipment which can Make or
break a circuit either manually or by remote control under
normal conditions.
Break a circuit automatically under fault condition
Make a circuit either manually or by remote under fault
condition

11/1/2017 Dr.Latif Shaikh

 Operating Principle

Circuit Breaker consists of fixed and moving contacts called electrodes

Under normal operating condition these contacts remain closed and will
not open automatically unless the system becomes faulty .These contacts
can be opened manually or by remote control.
When a fault occurs in a circuit the trip coils of the circuit breaker get
energized and the moving contacts are pulled apart by some mechanism
,thus opening the circuit.

11/1/2017 Dr.Latif Shaikh

Simplified Diagram of Circuit Breaker Control

11/1/2017 Dr.Latif Shaikh

Electric Arc

11/1/2017 Dr.Latif Shaikh

 Electric Arc

When contacts of circuit breaker starts separating the contact resistance

starts increasing. This increases the (I square r) loss which is heat
produced .
This heat increases the energy of electrons in the contact areas and the
ionized particles tries to maintain the current when contacts are
separated.This flow of charged particles form one contact to other is called
an arc .
The medium surrounding the arc also contains ions .
Due to this charged particles the arc continues even if the breakers
contacts are separated.
The voltage (potential gradient) across the arc is less and so it continues
even for low voltages.

11/1/2017 Dr.Latif Shaikh

 ARC in AC and DC circuits

DC arcs are to be interrupted by increasing the resistance

interruption method in which resistance of the arc is increased
so that the arc voltage can no longer maintain the current and
the arc is extinguished.
Size of DC circuit breaker increases as the voltage level
increases.
AC arcs current reduces to zero in each cycle (2 times)
If the circuit breaker contacts are opened at time when the
current passed through zero and dielectric strength of the
medium is build up rapidly so that arc cannot strike again then
arc can be extinguished successfully.
Size of AC circuit breaker can be small compared to same
voltage DC circuit breaker.
11/1/2017 Dr.Latif Shaikh
 Principles of Arc extinction
Separate the contacts of circuit breaker such that the arc resistance increases
to a very high value. The pd between the contacts is unable to maintain the
arc current. For high voltage circuit breakers this method is impracticable
since a separation of many meters will be required.(High Resistance Method)

The ionized particles between the contacts tend to maintain the arc. If the arc
path is deionized ,the arc extinction is facilitated .This may be achieved by
cooling the arc or by bodily removing the ionized particles from the space
between the contacts.(Low Resistance Method)

11/1/2017 Dr.Latif Shaikh

 Important terms

Arc Voltage It is the voltage that appears across the contacts of

the circuit breakers during the arcing period as the contacts are
opened.
Recovery voltage It is the normal frequency voltage that
appears across the contacts of circuit breaker after final arc
extinction.
Rate of rise of restriking voltage (RRRV) It is the rate of increase
of restriking voltage .RRRV depends upon 1) recovery voltage and
2) Natural frequency of oscillation

11/1/2017 Dr.Latif Shaikh

Restriking Voltage

It is the transient voltage that

appears across the contacts at or
near current zero during arcing
period.
If dielectric strength rise is greater
than the rise of restriking voltage
then the arc will not restrike.

11/1/2017 Dr.Latif Shaikh

 Current Chopping

It is the phenomena of current interruption before natural current zero is

reached. It occurs in air blast circuit breaker because they retain same
extinguishing power irrespective of the magnitude of current to be
interrupted.
When interrupting low inductive current e.g.magnetising current of
transformer, a rapid deionizing effect causes current , to fall below its zero
value before natural current zero is called current chopping.

11/1/2017 Dr.Latif Shaikh

Current Chopping

11/1/2017 Dr.Latif Shaikh

Resistance Switching

11/1/2017 Dr.Latif Shaikh

 Resistance Switching

The switching Resistor (R) is connected in parallel with the CB contacts. Current
chopping produces high voltage oscillations which can be prevented by this
method.
During arc interruption CB contacts separate first and after arc gets
extinguished S opens depending upon the time delay provided to it.
When the fault occurs the CB contacts open and arc is struck between them.
Since R is in parallel with Cb contacts ,a part of arc current flows through
this resistance so arc current decreases and deionization rate increases. The
arc resistance also increases so current through R increases. This continue
till the arc current is insufficient to maintain the arc.

11/1/2017 Dr.Latif Shaikh

 Circuit Breaker Rating
Breaking capacity It is the current (r.m.s.) that a Circuit Breaker is capable of
breaking at given recovery voltage and under specified conditions.
Making Capacity The peak value of current (including DC component) during
the first cycle of current wave after closure of circuit breaker is known as
making capacity. Making capacity = 2.55 symmetrical breaking capacity
Short time rating It is the period for which the CB is able to carry fault
current while remaining closed.
Normal current rating It is the r.m.s. value of current which the CB is capable
of carrying continuously at its rated frequency under rated specified
conditions.

11/1/2017 Dr.Latif Shaikh

 IEEE Standards for Selection of Circuit Breakers

Step 1.Calculate highest value of initial RMS current considering symmetrical

fault. The current can be obtained by sub -transient reactance of synchronous
generators and transient reactance of synchronous motors and induction
motors are neglected.
Following Multiplying factors are applied to take into account dc components
and decrement of dc components in current. If short circuit KVA exceeds
5000,000 ,then add 0.1 to the given factors

8 cycles or slow breaker 1.0

5 cycle breaker 1.1

3 cycle breaker 1.2

2 cycle breaker 1.4

11/1/2017 Dr.Latif Shaikh

 IEEE Standards for Selection of Circuit Breakers

11/1/2017 Dr.Latif Shaikh

 SF6 circuit Breaker (Properties of SF6 gas)

Electronegative It has the ability of an atom to attract and

hold electrons. Such gas have high dielectric stremngth.SF6 is
electronegative .It forms negative ions ,Negative ions are
heavy and immobile so they do not flow easily .Hence SF6 gas
has high dielectric strength.
Rate of rise of dielectric strength is very high.
Can be liquefied and stored in steel tanks
Dielectric strength increase linearly with pressure.
Gas is inert. Therefore contacts will not get eroded.
Gas is non inflammable , Colorless ,odorless, Non-toxic
Thermally stable up to 55 degrees

11/1/2017 Dr.Latif Shaikh

Sulfur Hexafluoride Circuit Breaker

11/1/2017 Dr.Latif Shaikh

Operation of SF6 Circuit Breaker

Under normal operating conditions the contacts are closed .

On occurance of fault contacts are opened. The movable contact moves
away from the fixed contact.
The arc is struck between the fixed and moving contacts.
High pressure SF6 gas now flows over the arc and it absorbs the free
electrons from the arc.
This builds up the dielectric strength between the gap very fast and the
arc is extinguished

11/1/2017 Dr.Latif Shaikh

 Advantages and Disadvantages of SF6 Breaker

Advantages
Silent operation, compact
size
Vary short arcing time
No risk of fire
No reduction in dielectric
strength due to operation
No current chopping problem
Can interrupt larger currents
Suitable for explosive
environment due to totally
enclosed body
Disadvantages
Costly
Requires conditioning of SF6 gas
from time to time
SF6 gas is suffocating ,so its
leakage can cause suffocation of
the persons in surrounding
areas.
Special facilities are required for
transporting gas
Additional equipments are
required for reconditioning

11/1/2017 Dr.Latif Shaikh

Isolators

11/1/2017 Dr.Latif Shaikh

Isolators
Isolator(disconnecting switch) operates under no load condition.
It does not have any current breaking capacity or current
making capacity. Isolator is not even used for breaking load
currents.
Isolators are used in addition to circuit breakers ,and are
provided on each side of every circuit breaker to provide
isolation and enable maintenance.
Sequence of operation
While opening Open circuit breaker first and then isolators
While closing Close isolators first and then close circuit breakers

11/1/2017 Dr.Latif Shaikh

Circuit Breaker Controls

Different types of controls are required for successful operation of circuit

breakers.
1.Relays These are required to give a trip signal to circuit breaker in case of
fault condition. Different types of relays are available like over current,
over voltage ,under voltage, loss of excitation, reverse power etc.
2.Sensor equipments are required to check the condition of circuit breakers
arc extinguishing medium .
The controls are pressure sensors to sense the pressure of air in case of air
blast circuit breakers .
In case of Sulfur hexafluoride circuit breakers also the pressure sensors are
required.
In case of vacuum circuit breakers also sensors are required to check the
vacuum level in the breaker.

11/1/2017 Dr.Latif Shaikh

 Facts about Lightning
The average duration of a lightening stroke is 30
micro seconds
Each Lightening flash is made up of several (about
4) lightening strokes
A strike can average 100 million volts of
electricity
Current of up to 100,000 amperes
Can generate 54,000 oF
Lightning strikes somewhere on the Earth every
second
Surge Arrester
 STANDARDS

IEC 60099
Surge arresters
Part 1 : Non-linear resistor type gapped surge
arresters for a.c. systems
Part 4 : Metal-oxide surge arresters without gaps for
a.c. systems
Part 5 : Selection and application recommendations
 Definition
A protective device for limiting surge voltages
on equipment by diverting surge current and
returning the device to its original status. It is
capable of repeating these functions as
specified.

[IEEE Standard C.62.11-2005]

Metal-Oxide Arresters
U-I-characteristic of a typical MO arrester in a solidly earthed
neutral 420kV system
Metal-Oxide Resistors
Porcelain Housed Surge Arrester
Polymer Housed Surge Arrester
 Two-Unit HV
Surge Arrester
Components
Surge Counter
Surge Counter Installation