Prof Abdul quadir md (SCSE)

Basic Structure of Computers

 Functional Units

Arithmetic
Input and
logic

Memory

Output Control

I/O Processor

Figure 1.1. Basic functional units of a computer.

 Information Handled by a Computer
Instructions/machine instructions
Govern the transfer of information within a computer as well
as between the computer and its I/O devices
Specify the arithmetic and logic operations to be performed
Program
Data
Used as operands by the instructions
Source program
Encoded in binary code 0 and 1
 Memory Unit
Store programs and data
Two classes of storage
Primary storage
Fast
Programs must be stored in memory while they are being executed
Large number of semiconductor storage cells
Processed in words
Address
RAM and memory access time
Memory hierarchy cache, main memory
Secondary storage larger and cheaper
 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
Most computer operations are executed in
ALU of the processor.
Load the operands into memory bring them
to the processor perform operation in ALU
store the result back to memory or retain in
the processor.
Registers
Fast control of ALU
 Control Unit
All computer operations are controlled by the control
unit.
The timing signals that govern the I/O transfers are also
generated by the control unit.
Control unit is usually distributed throughout the
machine instead of standing alone.
Operations of a computer:
Accept information in the form of programs and data through an input
unit and store it in the memory
Fetch the information stored in the memory, under program control, into
an ALU, where the information is processed
Output the processed information through an output unit
Control all activities inside the machine through a control unit
 Memory Size / Speed
Typical memory in a personal computer (PC):
64MB - 256MB
Memory sizes:
Kilobyte (KB) = 210 = 1,024 bytes ~ 1 thousand
Megabyte(MB) = 220 = 1,048,576 bytes ~ 1 million
Gigabyte (GB) = 230 = 1,073,741,824 bytes ~ 1 billion
Memory Access Time (read from/ write to memory)
50-75 nanoseconds (1 nsec. = 0.000000001 sec.)
RAM is
volatile (can only store when power is on)
relatively expensive

CMPUT101 Introduction to
(c) Yngvi Bjornsson 8
Computing
 hardware and software.

A computer system consists of two major elements: hardware and

software.

Computer hardware is the collection of all the parts you can physically
touch.

Computer software, on the other hand, is not something you can

touch. Software is a set of instructions for a computer to perform specific
operation
 Software
A set of instructions given to the computer to
solve a problem is called Software.
Software is a single/collection of programs
that performs a particular task.

Software is also called Program.

Different software's are used to solve different
problems.

M. Hammad Waseem 11
 Types Of Software
There are two types of software on the basis of their
functionality:
System Software
Application Software

M. Hammad Waseem 12
 Application Software
Application Software includes programs that do
real work for user.
Application Software is created to perform specific
tasks for a user.

It is also known as application package.

Application software is used to perform various applications
on the computer.

M. Hammad Waseem 13
 Examples
Microsoft Word
Microsoft Excel
Lotus 123
Photoshop etc

M. Hammad Waseem 14
 Custom software
Custom software (also known as bespoke
software or tailor made software's)
is software that is specially developed for
some specific organization or other user.
Packaged Software
Packaged Software is a Software that
is ready-made and available for sale,
lease , or license to the general public.

M. Hammad Waseem 15
 System Software
System Software is set of programs to
control and manage the operations of a
computer hardware.

It enables application programs to execute properly.

It consists of the basic operations as follows:
Saving data on disk
Making computer to work for us
Printing a document etc.

M. Hammad Waseem 16
 Examples
Examples of System Software's are:
Operating Systems
Utility Programs
Device Drivers

M. Hammad Waseem 17
 Operating System (OS)
An operating system (OS) is a collection
of software that manages computer
hardware resources and provides
common services for computer
programs.
The operating system is a vital component of
the system software in a computer system.
Application programs usually require an
operating system to function.
M. Hammad Waseem 18
 Device Driver
A Device Driver is a computer
program that operates or controls a
particular type of device that is attached to
a computer.
Like printers

M. Hammad Waseem 19
RAM versus ROM comparison chart
RAM
Random Access Memory or RAM is a
form of data storage that can be
accessed randomly at any time, in any
order and from any physical location.,
allowing quick access and
manipulation.
ROM
Read-only memory or ROM is also a
form of data storage that can not be
easily altered or reprogrammed.Stores
instuctions that are not nescesary for
re-booting up to make the computer
operate when it is switched off.They
are hardwired.

Random Access Memory Read-only memory

RAM allows the computer to ROM stores the program required to

read data quickly to run applications. It initially boot the computer. It only
allows reading and writing. allows reading.

RAM is volatile i.e. its contents are lost It is non-volatile i.e. its contents are
when the device is powered off. retained even when the device is
powered off.
The two main types of RAM are static The types of ROM include PROM,
RAM and dynamic RAM. EPROM and EEPROM.
 Compiler Interpreter

Compiler Interpreter
1 Takes Entire program as Takes Single instruction
input as input .
USING OPERATING SYSTEM:
The OS is an example of system software- software that controls
the systems hardware and that interacts with the user and
application software. In short OS is the computers master control
program. The OS provides you with the tool that enables you to
Interact with the PC.

Types of operating system:

Operating system can be organized into four types.
1. Real-time operating system
2. Single-user/single-tasking operating system
3. Single-user/multitasking operating system
4. Multi-user/multitasking operating system

1. Real-time operating system

A real time operating system is a very fast, relatively small OS.
They are build into the circuitry of a device and are not loaded from
a disk drive. A real time OS is needed to run real time application
Real time application are needed to run medical diagnostics
equipment, life support system, machinery, scientific instruments,
and industrial systems.

2. Single-user/single-tasking operating system:

An operating system that allows a single user to perform just one
task at a time is a single-user/single-tasking operating system.OS
can only manage a single task at a time.
MS-DOS is one example of a single tasking OS.

3. Single-user/multitasking operating system:

A Single-user/multitasking operating system is one that allows a
Single user to perform two or more functions at once. The multi-
tasking features of these OSs have greatly increased the
productivity of people in the large variety of jobs because they
can accomplish in less time.
The disadvantages of Single-user/multitasking operating system is
the increased size, complexity to support multitasking.
4. Multi-user/multitasking operating system:

A Multi-user/multitasking operating system is an operating system

that allows multiple users to use programs that are simultaneously
running on a single network server.

In a Multi-user/multitasking operating system environment, all or

most of the computing occurs at the server. The advantage of
these operating system is that they can be managed by simply
making changes to one server rather than to many desktop
computer.

A disadvantages is that if the network connection to the server is

Broken, the user can not do any work in the application of server.
Ex- UNIX, VMS, and mainframe operating system such as MVS.
Size and Time Units for Computers

Unit Amount of Memory

Byte 8 bits
Kilobyte (kB) 1,000 (103) bytes*
Megabyte (MB) 1,000,000 (106) bytes
Gigabyte (GB) 1,000,000,000 (109) bytes
Terrabyte 1,000,000,000,000 (1012) bytes

* This number is an approximation. The exact value is 1,024 bytes.

2000 by Prentice Hall. 3-26
The Five Computer Components

The central processor

Secondary storage

Input devices

Output devices

Communication devices
2000 by Prentice Hall. 3-27
 The Central Processor
The central processor consists of two parts
The central processing unit (CPU)
Arithmetic-log unit (ALU)
The control unit
Primary storage
Random access memory (RAM)
Read-only memory (ROM)
Cache memory

2000 by Prentice Hall. 3-28

 Secondary Storage

There are two main types of secondary

storage
Sequential
Magnetic tape
Direct access
Magnetic disks
Redundant array of independent disks (RAID)
CD-ROM
Digital Versatile Disk (DVD)

2000 by Prentice Hall. 3-29

 Input Devices

Input devices are the devices through

which a computer accepts data
Touch screens
Voice-recognition systems
Optical character reader (OCR)

2000 by Prentice Hall. 3-30

 Output Devices

An output device is any device that helps

the user to view the output of the
computer
Computer screen (video display terminal)
Printers

2000 by Prentice Hall. 3-31

Features of the Three Types of Printers

Type of Printer Features

Dot Matrix Cheapest type of printer. Uses pins to press on a

ribbon to make characters. Noisiest type of printer.
Higher-quality output than the dot matrix. Uses a
Inkjet nozzle to spray ink onto a page. Produces about 2 to 8
ppm. Can print documents in color. Quieter than a dot
matrix printer, but more expensive to operate.
Highest-quality output, comparable to magazine
output. Quietest printer. Typically the most expensive
Laser printer. Produces 4 to 16 ppm or more.

2000 by Prentice Hall. 3-32

 Communication Devices

Devices that allow users separated by

distance and time to exchange
documents, files, graphics, and other
digital information.

2000 by Prentice Hall. 3-33

Computers That Support Different Work-
group Sizes

Personal Information Enterprise-wide

Work-group Systems
Systems Systems

PCs
Midrange or
Laptops/Notebooks Supercomputers
Minicomputers
Hand-held Computers Mainframes
Workstations
Pen-based Computers

2000 by Prentice Hall. 3-34

 Supercomputers
Some of the fastest and largest computers
available today are supercomputers
Supercomputers have two common
characteristics
The ability to process instructions in parallel
(parallel processing)
The ability to automatically recover from failures
(fault tolerance)

2000 by Prentice Hall. 3-35

 Mainframes
Mainframes are frequently enterprise-wide systems
and are ideal for transaction processing, financial
applications, payroll, investment analysis, and other
applications that require extensive computations
Many users can simultaneously use the mainframe
One large disadvantage of the mainframe is that it is
expensive to purchase, operate, and maintain

2000 by Prentice Hall. 3-36

 Midrange,or Minicomputers, and
Workstations
Although midrange computers are slower and often
have less memory than mainframes, they are
workhorses that can deliver excellent bang for the
buck
Workstations lie somewhere between midrange and
personal computers
They can be used by individuals or groups
They are faster and more sophisticated than PCs
They include numerous productivity tools that increase
efficiency

2000 by Prentice Hall. 3-37

 Network Computers
The network computer, also known as thin clients is a
simplified version of a personal computer
They are used mainly to access programs that reside on a
companys network or on the Internet
Network computers are well suited for task-oriented jobs,
such as data entry, order entry, and assembly line work
Network computers function by downloading all
applications from a central computer and obtaining and
storing all data back on the central computer
Network computers can offer cost efficiencies, but they
rely heavily on network traffic and can cause bottlenecks

2000 by Prentice Hall. 3-38

 Microcomputers or Personal
Computers (PCs)

The memory size and processing capabilities of

microcomputers are less than mainframes and
midrange computers
However, hardware technology advances have
made the PC a compact and powerful machine
A PC can be configured to meet the specific needs
of users

2000 by Prentice Hall. 3-39

 Mobile Computers: Laptops, Notebooks,
Handheld, and Pen-based

These computers are battery operated so

they can be used anytime, anywhere
The portability of notebook and handheld
computers has increased the productivity
of many employees

2000 by Prentice Hall. 3-40

 A Comparison of Types of Mobile
Computers
Type Description

Laptop Fits on a users lap and is slightly larger than a notebook. Has full PC
functionality with a reduced keypad and screen. Has a floppy drive.
Has full PC functionality with a reduced keypad and screen and no floppy
Notebook drive.
Smaller than a laptop or notebook computer. Has a built-in monitor that
Handheld can be operated from the palm of ones hand so the keyboard and screen
are smaller than a laptop. Often, the keyboard requires an electronic pen
to input data.
Uses an electronic writing pad and a light-sensitive electronic pen to
Pen-based input data.
Can download text, photos, and other applications from PCs and transmit
Wrist data via infrared rays; users input information on the LCD watch face that
turns into a small keyboard.

2000 by Prentice Hall. 3-41

Six Technical Considerations in Buying a PC

Clock
Monitors
Speed

Processor RAM

Expansion Secondary
Slots Storage

2000 by Prentice Hall. 3-42

Business Guidelines for Hardware
Success

Cost Is Only Part of the Story

Many benefits resulting from information systems are
intangible and tough to measure
increased productivity
improved decision making
faster customer service
Dont Compromise on Capacity and Reliability
The motto If it aint broke, dont fix it does not apply
to hardware capacity and reliability

2000 by Prentice Hall. 3-43

 Binary number systems

2 1,4 2 1,8 4 2 1,16 8 4 2 1, goes on

What is a Computer Network?
Collection of autonomous
computers interconnected by a
single technology is called
computer network.
Two computers are set to be
interconnected if they are able to
exchange information.
Connection can be through a
copper wire, fiber optics,
microwaves, infrared or satellite.
CATEGORIES OF
NETWORKS
 A Local Area Network (LAN) is a collection of networking
equipment located geographically close together. E.g. Single
room, campus etc.
Data transferred in High speed which ranges from 100 Mbps to
gigabit for system development and have a low implementation
cost.
Upper limit: 10 km ; Lower limit: 1 km
Twisted pair cable or Co-axial cable connects the plug in cards to
form a network.
Designed to share resources between PCs and workstation such as
hardware or data.
A work to internet connections would most likely
require broadcast network (LAN) with a connection to
the internet (packet switched network)
 Cost reductions through sharing of information and databases, resources and
network services.
Increased information exchange between different departments in an
organization, or between individuals.
The trend to automate communication and manufacturing process.

Special security measures are

needed to stop users from using
programs and data that they
should not have access to;
Networks are difficult to set up
and need to be maintained by
skilled technicians.
If the file server develops a
serious fault, all the users are
affected, rather than just one user
in the case of a stand-alone
machine.
 There are three topologies of LAN Network

Ring Topology
Bus Topology

LAN
Topologies

Star Topology
 The metropolitan area network (MAN) is designed to extend
over an entire city.
It may be a single network such as cable television network
available in many cities.
A MAN uses distributed queue dual bus.
Range: Within 100 km (a city).
Bus A

MAN

Bus B
 It provides a good back bone for
a large network and provides
greater access to WANs.
The dual bus used in MAN helps
the transmission of data in both
direction simultaneously.
A Man usually encompasses
several blocks of a city or an
entire city.
More cable required for a MAN
connection from one place to
another.
It is difficult to make the system
secure from hackers and
industrial espionage (spying)
graphical regions.
 Network that provides long
distance transmission of
data, voice, image and
video information over
large geographical areas
that may comprise a
country, a continent.
Range: Beyond 100 km.
Covers a large geographical area so long
distance businesses can connect on the
one network.
Shares software and resources with
connecting workstations.
Messages can be sent very quickly to
anyone else on the network. These
messages can have pictures, sounds, or
data included with them (called
attachments).
Expensive things (such as printers or
phone lines to the internet) can be shared
by all the computers on the network
without having to buy a different peripheral
for each computer.
Everyone on the network can use the
same data. This avoids problems where
some users may have older information
than others.
Need a good firewall to restrict outsiders
from entering and disrupting the network
Setting up a network can be an expensive,
slow and complicated. The bigger the
network the more expensive it is.
Once set up, maintaining a network is a
full-time job which requires network
supervisors and technicians to be
employed.
Security is a real issue when many
different people have the ability to use
information from other computers.
Protection against hackers and viruses adds
more complexity and expense.
ISDN ( Integrated service
digital network) 2 types
Basic rate interface
Primary rate interface
Frame relay
Switched multimegabit
data service (SMDS)
Synchronous optical
network (SONET)
High data link controlled
(HDLC)
Synchronous Data Link
Control (SDLC)
 BASIS LAN MAN WAN
Full Form Local Area Network Metropolitan Area Network Wide Area Network

Range A communication network This network shares the A communication network

linking a number of stations in characteristics of packet distinguished from a Local Area
same local area. Range is 1 to broadcasting networks. Network. Range is Beyond 100
10 km Range is100 km km

Media Used Uses guided media Uses guided as well as Uses unguided media
unguided media
Speed A high speed i.e. 100kbps to Optimized for a large Long distance
100mbps geographical area than LAN. communications, which may or
may not be provided by public
packet network.

Cost cheaper costly expensive

Equipment NIC, switch and hub Modem and router Microwave, radio, infra-red
needed laser
protocols Attached Resource computer Frame relay and ATM, FDDI, SMDS
network (ARCNET), Token ring asynchronous transfer
mode(ATM)
 Routers
Routers are small electronic devices that join
multiple computer networks together via
either wired or wireless connections.

Router
 modem
A modem is a hardware device that allows a computer to
send and receive data over a telephone line or a cable or
satellite connection.

In the case of transmission over an analog telephone line,

which was once the most popular way to access the internet,
the modem converts data between analog and digital formats
in real time for two-way network communication.

In the case of the high-speed digital modems popular today,

the signal is much simpler and doesn't require the analog-to-
digital conversion.

 hub
Hub is the most
basic networking device that
connects multiplecomputers or
other network devices together
hub
 switch
A network switch (also called switching hub, bridging hub,
officially MAC bridge) is a computer networking device that
connects devices together on a computernetwork by using
packet switching to receive, process, and forward data to the
destination device.

 Internet
It is a worldwide/global system of
interconnected computer networks. It uses the
standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Every computer
in Internet is identified by a unique IP address. IP
Address is a unique set of numbers (such as
110.22.33.114) which identifies a computers
location.
A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is
used to provide a name to the IP Address so that
the user can locate a computer by a name. For
example, a DNS server will resolve a
name https://www.google.com to a particular IP
address to uniquely identify the computer on which
this website is hosted

 Intranet

Intranet is the system in which multiple PCs are connected to

each other. PCs in intranet are not available to the world
outside the intranet. Usually each organization has its own
Intranet network and members/employees of that
organization can access the computers in their intranet.
 GUI
Graphical User Interface, a GUI (pronounced as either G-U-I or
gooey) allows the use of icons or other visual indicators to interact
with electronic devices, rather than using only text via
the command line.

For example, all versions of Microsoft Windows utilize a GUI,

whereas MS-DOS does not.

The GUI was first developed at Xerox PARC by Alan Kay, Douglas
Engelbart, and a group of other researchers in 1981.
Later, Apple introduced the Lisa computer, the first commercially
available computer, on January 19, 1983.

Below is a picture of the Windows 7 Desktop and an example of a

GUI.
 How does a GUI work?

A GUI uses windows, icons, and menus to

carry out commands, such as opening,
deleting, and moving files.

Although many GUI operating systems are

navigated through the use of a mouse, the
keyboard can also be utilized by using
keyboard shortcuts or arrow keys.
 What are the benefits of GUI?

Unlike a command line operating system or CUI, like

Unix or MS-DOS,

GUI operating systems are much easier to learn and use

because commands do not need to be memorized.

Additionally, users do not need to know any

programming languages.

Because of their ease of use, GUI operating systems

have become the dominant operating system used by
today's end-users.
What are examples of a GUI operating
system?
Microsoft Windows
Apple System 7 and macOS
Chrome OS
Linux variants like Ubuntu

How does the user interact with a GUI?

Typically the user uses a pointing device such as the

mouse to interact and use most aspects of the GUI.
However, it is also possible to interact with a GUI using a
keyboard or other input device.
 Are all operating systems GUI?

No. Early command line operating systems like MS-

DOS and even some versions of Linuxtoday have no GUI
interface.

What are examples of a GUI interface?

GNOME
KDE
Any Microsoft program (i.e. Word, Excel, Outlook)
Internet browser (i.e. Internet Explorer, Chrome, Firefox)
 Multi-user - A multi-user operating system allows for multiple users to use the same
computer at the same time and different times. See the multi-user definition for a
complete definition. Examples of operating systems that would fall into this category are:
Linux, Unix, Windows 2000

Multiprocessing - An operating system capable of supporting and utilizing more than one
computer processor. Examples of operating systems that would fall into this category are:
Linux, Unix, Windows XP

Multitasking - An operating system that is capable of allowing multiple software processes

to run at the same time. Examples of operating systems that would fall into this category
are:
Linux, Unix, Windows 8

Multithreading - Operating systems that allow different parts of a software program to run
concurrently. Examples of operating systems that would fall into this category are:
Linux, Unix, Windows XP
Memory hirerachy
 Context switching

When an event occurs, the operating system saves the

state of the active process and restores the state of the
new process.
This mechanism is called a Context Switch.
What must get saved? Everything that the next process
could or will damage. For example:
Program counter (PC)
Program status word (PSW)
CPU registers (general purpose, floating-point)
File access pointer(s)
Memory (perhaps?)
 Process

A process is a program in execution.

The components of a process are:
the program to be executed,
the data on which the program will execute,
the resources required by the programsuch as
memory and file(s)and
the status of the execution.
 Mainframe Systems
Reduce setup time by batching similar
jobs
Automatic job sequencing automatically
transfers control from one job to another.
First rudimentary operating system.
Resident monitor
initial control in monitor
control transfers to job
when job completes control transfers pack to
monitor

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Memory Layout for a Simple Batch System

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Multi - programmed Batch Systems
Several jobs are kept in main memory at the same time, and the
CPU is multiplexed among them.

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 OS Features Needed for
Multiprogramming
I/O routine supplied by the system.
Memory management the system
must allocate the memory to several
jobs.
CPU scheduling the system must
choose among several jobs ready to
run.
Allocation of devices.

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 Time-Sharing SystemsInteractive Computing

The CPU is multiplexed among several jobs that are

kept in memory and on disk (the CPU is allocated to
a job only if the job is in memory).
A job swapped in and out of memory to the disk.
On-line communication between the user and the
system is provided; when the operating system
finishes the execution of one command, it seeks the
next control statement from the users keyboard.
On-line system must be available for users to access
data and code.

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 Desktop Systems
Personal computers computer system
dedicated to a single user.
I/O devices keyboards, mice, display screens,
small printers.
User convenience and responsiveness.
Can adopt technology developed for larger
operating system often individuals have sole
use of computer and do not need advanced
CPU utilization of protection features.
May run several different types of operating
systems (Windows, MacOS, UNIX, Linux)

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 Parallel Systems
Multiprocessor systems with more than on CPU
in close communication.
Tightly coupled system processors share
memory and a clock; communication usually
takes place through the shared memory.
Advantages of parallel system:
Increased throughput
Economical
Increased reliability
graceful degradation
fail-soft systems

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Parallel Systems (Cont.)
Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP)
Each processor runs and identical copy of the
operating system.
Many processes can run at once without
performance deterioration.
Most modern operating systems support SMP
Asymmetric multiprocessing
Each processor is assigned a specific task; master
processor schedules and allocated work to slave
processors.
More common in extremely large systems

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Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture

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 Server
A server is a computer program that provides
services to other computer programs (and
their users) in the same or other computers.

The computer that a server program runs in is

also frequently referred to as a server. That
machine may be a dedicated server or used
for other purposes as well.
 Server
Servers are often categorized in terms of their purpose.

A Web server, for example, is a computer program that

serves requested HTML pages or files.

A Web client is the requesting program associated

with the user.

The Web browser in your computer is a client that

requests HTML files from Web servers.
 Distributed Systems
Distribute the computation among several
physical processors.
Loosely coupled system each processor has its
own local memory; processors communicate with
one another through various communications
lines, such as high-speed buses or telephone lines.
Advantages of distributed systems.
Resources Sharing
Computation speed up load sharing
Reliability
Communications

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 Distributed Systems (cont)

Requires networking infrastructure.

Local area networks (LAN) or Wide
area networks (WAN)
May be either client-server or peer-to-
peer systems.

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 Client server systems
Client-server is a software architecture model
consisting of two parts, client systems and server
systems, both communicating over a computer
network or on the same computer.

A client server application is a

distributed system made up of
both client and server software.
General Structure of Client-Server

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 Clustered Systems
Clustering allows two or more systems to
share storage.
Provides high reliability.
Asymmetric clustering: one server runs the
application while other servers standby.
Symmetric clustering: all N hosts are running
the application.
 Real-Time Systems
A real-time operating system (RTOS) is an operating
system (OS) intended to serve real-time applications that
process data as it comes in, typically without buffer
delays. Processing time requirements (including any OS
delay) are measured in tenths of seconds or shorter
increments of time.

Often used as a control device in a dedicated application

such as controlling scientific experiments, medical
imaging systems, industrial control systems, and some
display systems.

Well-defined fixed-time constraints.

Real-Time systems may be either hard or soft real-time.

 What is HTML?

HTML is the standard markup language for creating

Web pages.
HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language
HTML describes the structure of Web pages using
markup
HTML elements are the building blocks of HTML pages
HTML elements are represented by tags
HTML tags label pieces of content such as "heading",
"paragraph", "table", and so on
Browsers do not display the HTML tags, but use them
to render the content of the page
 A Simple HTML Document

Example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Page Title</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>My First Heading</h1>
<p>My first paragraph.</p>
</body>
</html>
 Example Explained

The <!DOCTYPE html> declaration defines this

document to be HTML5
The <html> element is the root element of an HTML
page
The <head> element contains meta information about
the document
The <title> element specifies a title for the document
The <body> element contains the visible page content
The <h1> element defines a large heading
The <p> element defines a paragraph
 HTML Tags

HTML tags are element names surrounded by

angle brackets:
<tagname>content goes here...</tagname>
HTML tags normally come in pairs like <p> and
</p>
The first tag in a pair is the start tag, the second
tag is the end tag
The end tag is written like the start tag, but with
a forward slash inserted before the tag name
 Web Browsers

The purpose of a web browser (Chrome, IE,

Firefox, Safari) is to read HTML documents and
display them.
The browser does not display the HTML tags,
but uses them to determine how to display
the document:
 HTML Page Structure
Below is a visualization of an HTML page structure:Note: Only the content inside
the <body> section (the white area above) is displayed in a browser.

 The <!DOCTYPE> Declaration

The <!DOCTYPE> declaration represents the

document type, and helps browsers to display
web pages correctly.
It must only appear once, at the top of the
page (before any HTML tags).
The <!DOCTYPE> declaration is not case
sensitive.
The <!DOCTYPE> declaration for HTML5 is:
<!DOCTYPE html>
 Version Year

HTML 1991

HTML Versions
HTML 2.0 1995
Since the early days of the web, there have been many versions of HTML:

HTML 3.2 1997

HTML 4.01 1999

XHTML 2000

HTML5 2014
Write HTML Using Notepad or TextEdit

Web pages can be created and modified by

using professional HTML editors.
However, for learning HTML we recommend a
simple text editor like Notepad (PC) or
TextEdit (Mac).
We believe using a simple text editor is a good
way to learn HTML.
Follow the four steps below to create your
first web page with Notepad or TextEdit.
 Step 1: Open Notepad (PC)

Windows 8 or later:
Open the Start Screen (the window symbol at
the bottom left on your screen).
Type Notepad.
Windows 7 or earlier:
Open Start > Programs > Accessories
> Notepad
 Step 2: Write Some HTML

Write or copy some HTML into Notepad.

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>
<h1>My First Heading</h1>
<p>My first paragraph.</p>
</body>
</html>
 Step 3: Save the HTML Page
Save the file on your computer. Select File > Save
as in the Notepad menu.
Name the file "index.htm" and set the encoding
to UTF-8 (which is the preferred encoding for
HTML files).
You can use either .htm or .html as file extension.
There is no difference, it is up to you.

 Step 4: View the HTML Page in Your

Browser
Open the saved HTML file in your favorite
browser (double click on the file, or right-click
- and choose "Open with").
The result will look much like this:
 HTML Headings

HTML headings are defined with

the <h1> to <h6> tags.
<h1> defines the most important heading.
<h6> defines the least important heading:
 <!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>

<h1>This is heading 1</h1>

<h2>This is heading 2</h2>
<h3>This is heading 3</h3>
<h4>This is heading 4</h4>
<h5>This is heading 5</h5>
<h6>This is heading 6</h6>

</body>
</html>
 HTML Paragraphs
HTML paragraphs are defined with the <p> tag:

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>

<p>This is a paragraph.</p>
<p>This is another paragraph.</p>

</body>
</html>
 HTML Links
HTML links are defined with the <a> tag:

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>

<a href="https://www.w3schools.com">This is a link</a>

</body>
</html>
 HTML Images
HTML images are defined with the <img> tag.
The source file (src), alternative text (alt), width, and height are provided
as attributes:

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>

<img src="w3schools.jpg" alt="W3Schools.com" width="104"

height="142">

</body>
</html>
 The title Attribute
Here, a title attribute is added to
the <p> element. The value of the title
attribute will be displayed as a tooltip when
you mouse over the paragraph:
 <!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>

<h2>The title attribute</h2>

<p title="I'm a tooltip">

Mouse over this paragraph, to display the title attribute as a tooltip.
</p>

</body>
</html>
 HTML Horizontal Rules
The <hr> tag defines a thematic break in an
HTML page, and is most often displayed as a
horizontal rule.
The <hr> element is used to separate content
(or define a change) in an HTML page:
 <!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>

<h1>This is heading 1</h1>

<p>This is some text.</p>
<hr>

<h2>This is heading 2</h2>

<p>This is some other text.</p>
<hr>

<h2>This is heading 2</h2>

<p>This is some other text.</p>

</body>
</html>
 How to View HTML Source?

Have you ever seen a Web page and wondered "Hey! How did they do that?"
View HTML Source Code:

To find out, right-click in the page and select "View Page Source" (in Chrome) or
"View Source" (in IE), or similar in other browsers. This will open a window
containing the HTML source code of the page.

Inspect an HTML Element:

Right-click on an element (or a blank area), and choose "Inspect" or "Inspect

Element" to see what elements are made up of (you will see both the HTML and
the CSS). You can also edit the HTML or CSS on-the-fly in the Elements or Styles
panel that opens.
 HTML Style
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>

<p>I am normal</p>
<p style="color:red;">I am red</p>
<p style="color:blue;">I am blue</p>
<p style="font-size:36px;">I am big</p>

</body>
</html>
 HTML Style
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body style="background-color:powderblue;">

<h1>This is a heading</h1>
<p>This is a paragraph.</p>

</body>
</html>
 HTML Text Color
The color property defines the text color for an HTML element:

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>

<h1 style="color:blue;">This is a heading</h1>

<p style="color:red;">This is a paragraph.</p>

</body>
</html>
 HTML Fonts
The font-family property defines the font to be used for an HTML element:

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>

<h1 style="font-size:300%;">This is a heading</h1>

<p style="font-size:160%;">This is a paragraph.</p>

</body>
</html>

 HTML Text Alignment

The text-align property defines the horizontal text alignment for an HTML
element:

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<body>

<h1 style="text-align:center;">Centered Heading</h1>

<p style="text-align:center;">Centered paragraph.</p>

</body>
</html>

 Cloud Computing

Cloud computing is currently the buzzword in

IT industry, and many are curious to know
what cloud computing is and how it works.

More so because the term CLOUD is

intriguing and some people even wonder how
do clouds that rain can even remotely be used
in Computing.
 What is Cloud Computing?

Cloud Computing can be defined as delivering

computing power( CPU, RAM, Network
Speeds, Storage OS software) a service over a
network (usually on the internet) rather than
physically having the computing resources at
the customer location.

Example: AWS, Azure, Google Cloud

 Why Cloud Computing?

With increase in computer and Mobile users, data storage has become a
priority in all fields.

Large and small scale businesses today thrive on their data & they spent a
huge amount of money to maintain this data. It requires a strong IT
support and a storage hub.

Not all businesses can afford high cost of in-house IT infrastructure and
back up support services.

For them Cloud Computing is a cheaper solution.

Perhaps its efficiency in storing data, computation and less maintenance

cost has succeeded to attract even bigger businesses as well
 Characteristic of Cloud Computing

Lower IT infrastructure and computer costs for users

Improved performance
Fewer Maintenance issues
Instant software updates
Improved compatibility between Operating systems
Backup and recovery
Performance and Scalability
Increased storage capacity
Increase data safety
Types of Clouds
 Private Cloud: Here, computing resources are deployed for one
particular organization. This method is more used for intra-business
interactions. Where the computing resources can be governed,
owned and operated by the same organization.

Community Cloud: Here, computing resources are provided for a

community and organizations.

Public Cloud: This type of cloud is used usually for B2C (Business to
Consumer) type interactions. Here the computing resource is owned,
governed and operated by government, an academic or business
organization.

Hybrid Cloud: This type of cloud can be used for both type of
interactions - B2B (Business to Business) private cloud or B2C (
Business to Consumer) public . This deployment method is called
hybrid cloud as the computing resources are bound together by
different clouds.
What is Cloud Computing
Architecture?
 Cloud Computing Architecture
Cloud computing comprises of two
components front end and back end.

Front end consist client part of cloud

computing system.

It comprise of interfaces and applications that

are required to access the cloud computing
platform.
 Cloud Computing Architecture
While back end refers to the cloud itself, it
comprises of the resources that are required
for cloud computing services.

It consists of virtual machines, servers, data

storage, security mechanism etc. It is under
providers control.
 Cloud Computing Architecture
Cloud computing distributes the file system that
spreads over multiple hard disks and machines.

Data is never stored in one place only and in case

one unit fails the other will take over
automatically.

The user disk space is allocated on the distributed

file system, while another important component
is algorithm for resource allocation.
 Can a Computer Do a Lawyer's Job?
IF ROBOTS CAN PLAY CHESS...

In 1989, Garry Kasparov, the world chess champion faced off against a
special computer called Deep Thought. Deep Thought was designed at
Carnegie Mellon University and IBM. Kasparov easily defeated the
machine in a two game match.

In 1996, Kasparov faced a new computer developed by IBM called Deep

Blue. Again Kasparov defeated the computer. In 1997, IBM came back with
an improved version of Deep Blue that finally defeated Kasparov in a six
game match. This represented the first time that a machine had defeated
the top human chess player.

Since then, computer chess has continued to progress. In 2006, the new
world chess champion, Vladimir Kramnik, lost a match against a German
software program called Deep Fritz. While IBM's Deep Blue was a
completely custom computer about the size of a refrigerator, Deep Fritz is
a program that runs on a computer using two standard Intel processors. It
seems highly likely that, in the near future, a program like Deep Fritz,
running on virtually any cheap laptop computer, will be able to defeat the
best chess players in the world.
 Could a computer formulate a strategy for an
important legal case?
When we think of what it takes for a human being to be a world chess champion, degree of
creativity--at least within the confines of a highly defined set of rules.

Yet, creativity is a trait that we are very reluctant to ascribe to a machine--even if that
machine can beat a human at chess.

Who can say what is going on in a human chess master's head when he or she plays a match?
We simply don't know. And therefore it becomes to us something mysterious and especially
creative.

In the case of the computer, however, we know exactly what is happening.

The computer is simply calculating through millions of different possible moves and then
picking the best one. It is using a brute force algorithm. The computer's advantage arises not
from the fact that it is genuinely smart, but because it is almost unimaginably fast.

It's natural for us to give this brute force accomplishment a lower status than the creativity
and precise thinking exhibited by an exceptional human being. But the question for us here
is: will that protect us from brute force algorithms that can do our
 CAN THEY PRACTICE LAW?
If you agree that the game of chess requires creativity within a set
of defined rules, then could not something similar be said about the
field of law?

Currently there are jobs in the United States for many thousands of
lawyers who rarely, if ever, go into a courtroom.

These attorneys are employed in the areas of legal research and

contracts. They work at law firms and spend much of their time in
the library or accessing legal databases through their computers.
They research case law, and write briefs which summarize relevant
court cases and legal strategies from the past.

They review contracts and look for loopholes. They suggest possible
strategies and legal arguments for new cases that come to their
firms.
 there are already teams of lawyers who
specialize in researching case in the United
States.
 What about automation?
Can a computer do the lawyer's job?

One of the primary research areas in artificial intelligence has

focused on creating "smart" algorithms that can quickly
search, evaluate and summarize information.

We see the fruition of this body of research every time we use

Google or any other advanced Internet search engine.

We can expect that such smart algorithms will increasingly be

used in the field of legal research.

The software may start out as a productivity tool to make the

lawyer's job easier, and then eventually evolve into a full
automation solution.
 Obviously, it is easier to automate some parts of the lawyer's job than others.

For example, finding and summarizing relevant case law would be a likely target
for an initial effort.

As I pointed out with the radiologist automating even a portion of the lawyer's job
will quickly result in fewer attorneys on the payroll.

What about the more advanced or creative aspects of the lawyer's job?

Could a computer formulate a strategy for an important legal case?

For the time being, this may be a challenge, but as we saw in the case of chess, a
brute force algorithm may ultimately prevail. If a computer can evaluate millions of
possible chess moves, then why can it not also iterate through every known legal
argument since the days when Cicero held forth in the Roman Forum? Would this
be a "lesser" form of legal creativity? Perhaps it would. But would that matter to
our lawyer's employer?

 HUMANIZING THE ROBOT MIND

Although the practical applications of artificial intelligence have so

far emphasized brute force solutions, it is by no means true that
this is the only approach being taken in the field.

A very important area of study revolves around the idea of neural

nets, which are a special type of computer that is built upon a
model of the human brain.

Neural nets are currently being used in areas such as visual pattern
recognition.

In the future, we can probably expect some important advances in

this area, especially as the engineers who design neural nets work
more closely with scientists who are uncovering the secrets of how
our brains work.
Essential Software for the Modern Law
Practice
1. Productivity software. If there is one thing
lawyers universally understand, its that they
need productivity software to do all the basic
things required of desk jockeys: emailing,
drafting, creating presentations, building
spreadsheets and databases. he archetypal
example is the Microsoft Office suite, now
gone online.
 2 . PDF conversion software. If you want to be paperless and who
doesnt these days, lets face it a PDF conversion program is a must-
have, since most law firms still, at least, receive paper documents.

PDF conversion software allows you to scan paper to PDF and, where
necessary, you can then apply OCR to your scanned images that renders
the text, so you can edit it.

Among other general features, youll be able to package PDFs; add

encryption, remove metadata and build forms. Adobe Acrobat continues
to be the leader in the clubhouse, but Nuances Power PDF is a lower-cost
alternative.

Free conversion tools, with enterprise-level options,

include PDFCreator and CutePDf.
 3. Document automation/document
assembly software. I shudder to think that
there are not insignificant pockets of lawyers
out there still dedicated to mail merge, or
worse yet, typewriters. But clearly, there are
better ways to build documents in this bright
future. A document automation program
allows you to customize existing templates in
a number of ways, including by adding client
information
 4 . Document management software. Although most
document automation tools feature some level of
document management control, generally speaking,
standalone document management tools offer more robust
versions of those features, or different features altogether.
Major features common to a number of these applications
include version control, check-in/check-out features (an
additional level of access control), integration with existing
folder systems (Google Drive, your server), integration with
related software (Microsoft Word, Outlook), offline
access/briefcase, matter management, labeling/tagging
and global search capability (with in-depth search
functionality)
 6. Case management software. Case management
software (sometimes referred to as practice management
software) purports to be a holistic solution, in that it will
wrap the majority of common features for law firm
management into a single, accessible package. Generally
speaking, case management software includes:
Contact management (with global search for conflicts
checks)
Email archive
Document management
Calendar management (with sync options for your existing
email/calendar system)
Time, billing and accounting
 7. Data backup tools. Data management is the
holy grail of law firm management.

Since thats the case, it makes good sense to back

up the data you already have. Because no one
system is fail-safe, though, you may set your mind
far more at ease by using two systems in
conjunction and it probably makes sense to
pair a local backup with a cloud version.
 8. Customer relationship management (CRM) software. Using data
to drive marketing decisions is next-level law firm management.

CRM tools allow you to better render the data you take in
assuming you take it in effectively in the first place.

If you do, a CRM will provide basic contact management tools,

including the ability to add notes to files, and more robust features
that will walk you through the many pathways from leads to
conversions. Gaining a better understanding of how you close
business will help you to close more of it, when you learn what
tactics are successful, and which ones are not.
 9. Internal communication platform. The problem with
email is that literally anybody can send you one.

Thats whats so vexing about unfiltered spam you

dont have to reply, but you still have to delete it. Many
law firms are turning to restricted-access, internal
communication systems, sometimes referred to as
enterprise social networks. Programs with calendaring
features allow you to assign tasks and make notes on
those items
 Cyber Law of India
Cyber crimes can involve criminal activities
that are traditional in nature, such as theft,
fraud, forgery, defamation and mischief, all of
which are subject to the Indian Penal Code.

The abuse of computers has also given birth

to a gamut of new age crimes that are
addressed by the Information Technology
Act, 2000.
 We can categorize Cyber crimes in
two ways
The Computer as a Target :-using a computer to attack
other computers.
e.g. Hacking, Virus/Worm attacks, DOS attack etc.

The computer as a weapon :-using a computer to

commit real world crimes.
e.g. Cyber Terrorism, IPR violations, Credit card frauds,
EFT frauds, Pornography etc.
Cyber Crime regulated by Cyber Laws or Internet Laws.
 TechnicalAspects

Technological advancements have created

new possibilities for criminal activity, in
particular the criminal misuse of information
technologies such as
 Unauthorized access & Hacking:-

Access means gaining entry into, instructing or

communicating with the logical, arithmetical, or
memory function resources of a computer,
computer system or computer network.

Unauthorized access would therefore mean any

kind of access without the permission of either
the rightful owner or the person in charge of a
computer, computer system or computer
network
 Every act committed towards breaking into a computer
and/or network is hacking.

Hackers write or use ready-made computer programs to

attack the target computer.

They possess the desire to destruct and they get the kick
out of such destruction.

Some hackers hack for personal monetary gains, such as to

stealing the credit card information, transferring money
from various bank accounts to their own account followed
by withdrawal of money.
 Trojan Attack:-

The program that act like something useful but

do the things that are quiet damping. The
programs of this kind are called as Trojans.

The name Trojan Horse is popular.

Trojans come in two parts, a Client part and a

Server part. When the victim (unknowingly) runs
the server on its machine, the attacker will then
use the Client to connect to the Server and start
using the trojan.
 Virus and Worm attack:-

A program that has capability to infect other

programs and make copies of itself and spread
into other programs is called virus.

Programs that multiply like viruses but spread

from computer to computer are called as
worms.
 E-mail & IRC related crimes:-
1. Email spoofing
Email spoofing refers to email that appears to have been originated from one source when it was actually
sent from another source.

2. Email Spamming
Email "spamming" refers to sending email to thousands and thousands of users - similar to a chain letter.

3 Sending malicious codes through email

E-mails are used to send viruses, Trojans etc through emails as an attachment or by sending a link of
website which on visiting downloads malicious code.

4. Email bombing
E-mail "bombing" is characterized by abusers repeatedly sending an identical email message to a
particular address.

5. Sending threatening emails

6. Defamatory emails

7. Email frauds
 Denial of Service attacks:-

Flooding a computer resource with more requests

than it can handle. This causes the resource to crash
thereby denying access of service to authorized users.
Examples include
attempts to "flood" a network, thereby preventing
legitimate network traffic
attempts to disrupt connections between two
machines, thereby preventing access to a service
attempts to prevent a particular individual from
accessing a service
attempts to disrupt service to a specific system or
person.
 Pornography
The literal mining of the term 'Pornography' is describing or showing
sexual acts in order to cause sexual excitement through books, films, etc.

This would include pornographic websites; pornographic material

produced using computers and use of internet to download and transmit
pornographic videos, pictures, photos, writings etc.

Adult entertainment is largest industry on internet.There are more than

420 million individual pornographic webpages today.

Research shows that 50% of the web-sites containing potentially illegal

contents relating to child abuse were Pay-Per-View. This indicates that
abusive images of children over Internet have been highly commercialized.

Pornography delivered over mobile phones is now a burgeoning business,

driven by the increase in sophisticated services that deliver video clips
and streaming video, in addition to text and images.
 Cyber Terrorism:-

Targeted attacks on military installations, power plants, air traffic

control, banks, trail traffic control, telecommunication networks are
the most likely targets. Others like police, medical, fire and rescue
systems etc.
Cyberterrorism is an attractive option for modern terrorists for
several reasons.
1.It is cheaper than traditional terrorist methods.
2.Cyberterrorism is more anonymous than traditional terrorist
methods.
3.The variety and number of targets are enormous.
4.Cyberterrorism can be conducted remotely, a feature that is
especially appealing to terrorists.
5.Cyberterrorism has the potential to affect directly a larger number
of people.
 Banking/Credit card Related crimes:-

In the corporate world, Internet hackers are

continually looking for opportunities to
compromise a companys security in order to gain
access to confidential banking and financial
information.
Use of stolen card information or fake
credit/debit cards are common.
Bank employee can grab money using programs
to deduce small amount of money from all
customer accounts and adding it to own account
also called as salami.
 Online gambling:-

There are millions of websites hosted on

servers abroad, that offer online gambling. In
fact, it is believed that many of these websites
are actually fronts for money laundering.
 Cyber Stacking:-

Cyber stalking involves following a persons

movements across the Internet by posting
messages (sometimes threatening) on the
bulletin boards frequented by the victim, entering
the chat-rooms frequented by the victim,
constantly bombarding the victim with emails etc.

In general, the harasser intends to cause

emotional distress and has no legitimate purpose
to his communications.
 . Identity Theft :-

Identity theft is the fastest growing crime in

countries like America.
Identity theft occurs when someone appropriates
another's personal information without their
knowledge to commit theft or fraud.
Identity theft is a vehicle for perpetrating other
types of fraud schemes.
 Theft of computer system (Hardware):-
This type of offence involves the theft of a computer, some part(s) of a computer or a
peripheral attached to the computer.

u. Physically damaging a computer system:-

Physically damaging a computer or its peripherals either by shock, fire or excess electric
supply etc.

v. Breach of Privacy and Confidentiality

Privacy
Privacy refers to the right of an individual/s to determine when, how and to what extent his
or her personal data will be shared with others.
Breach of privacy means unauthorized use or distribution or disclosure of personal
information like medical records, sexual preferences, financial status etc.

Confidentiality
It means non disclosure of information to unauthorized or unwanted persons.
In addition to Personal information some other type of information which useful for business
and leakage of such information to other persons may cause damage to business or person,
such information should be protected.