Slides on Experiments

Submitted to:- Prepared by:-

Dr. Rajeev Suman Shubham Murari
Assistant Professor I.d.:- 46851
IPED P.E. 1
 Experiment

TO MEASURE THE ANGLES AND NOSE RADIUS OF

A GIVEN SINGLE POINT TOOL IN ASA AND ORS
SYSTEMS
AMERICAN STANDARD ASSOCIATION SYSTEM
(ASA)
In this system the tool angles are specified independently of the position of the
cutting edge.
The three reference planes used for this purpose are:
1. A plane containing the tool base.
2. A plane along the tool shank axis perpendicular the tool base.
3. A third plane is perpendicular to these planes.
 TOOL SIGNATURE
The ASA system consists of seven elements to denote a
single point cutting tool. They are always written in the
following order. Back rake angle, Side rake angle, End
relief angle, Side relief angle, End cutting edge angle,
Side cutting edge angle, and nose radius.
For example, tool signature 0, 10, 6, 6, 10, 12, 1 is,
Back rake angle = 0
Side rake angle = 10
End relief angle = 6
Side relief angle = 6
End cutting edge angle = 10
Side cutting edge angle = 12
Nose radius = 1mm
 ORTHOGONAL RAKE SYSTEM (ORS)

In this system the tool angle are specified with reference to three plane namely:
1. base plane.
2. plane containing the cutting edge.
3. the third plane is perpendicular to these planes.
 TOOL SIGNATURE
The ORS system comprises seven parameters to
describe a tool. The main elements of ORS designated
in the following order Angle of inclination, Normal rake
angle, Side relief angle, End relief angle, End cutting
edge angle, Approach angle and Nose radius.
Example: Tool signature 5, 10, 6, 6, 5, 90, 1 is,
Angle of inclination = 5
Normal rake angle = 10
Side relief angle = 6
End relief angle = 6
End cutting edge angle = 5
Approach angle = 90
Nose radius =1mm.
 TOOLS AND EQUIPMENTS

A single point cutting tool

Surface plate
Bevel protector
Fixture/Clamp
Radius gauge
Vernier calliper
 Single point cutting tool
The single point cutting tool has only one cutting point or edge. These tools used
for turning, boring, shaping or planning operations. These tools used on lathe,
boring and shaper machines.
 Main parts of single point cutting tool which are:
1. Shank- It is the main body of the tool
2. Flank-The surface or surface below the adjacent to the cutting edge is
called flank of the tool
3. Face-The surface on which the chip slides is called the face of the tool
4. Heel-It is the intersection of the flank and the base of the tool
5. Nose-It is the point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge intersect
6. Cutting edge-It is the edge on the face of the tool which removes the material
from the work piece. The cutting edge consists of the side cutting edge (major
cutting edge) and end cutting edge (minor cutting edge) and the nose.
 Surface plate
Asurface plateis a solid,flatplate used as the main horizontalreference
planefor precision inspection,marking out(layout), and tooling setup.The surface
plate is often used as the baseline for all measurements to the work piece.
 Bevel protector
A circle can be divided into 360 equal angles. Each
angle is called degree. So a circle is 360 degrees
(360o). For calculation a degree is divided into 60
parts called minutes and a minute is sub-divided into
60 parts called seconds. The bevel protractor is used
to establish and test angles to very close tolerances.
It reads to 5 minutes or 1/20oand can be used
completely through 360o.
The bevel protractor consists of a beam, graduated
dial and blade which is connected to swivel plate
(with Vernier scale) by thumb nut and clamp.
The bevel protractor consists of a beam, graduated dial and
blade which is connected to swivel plate (with Vernier scale) by
thumb nut and clamp.

When the edges of the beam and blade are parallel, a small line
on the swivel plate coincides with the zero line on the graduated
dial, and when any measurement of an angle between the beam
and the blade of 90 degrees or under is desired, the reading may
be obtained direct from the position of the line on the swivel
plate with regard to the graduation numbers on the dial.

But remember this: To obtain the measurement of the angle

between the beam and the blade of over 90 degrees subtract the
number of degrees as indicated on the dial from 180 degrees.
This is because, the dial is graduated from opposite zero marks
to 90 degrees each way.
 Fixture/Clamp
Afixture/clampis a work-holding/tool-holding or support device used in
themanufacturingindustry.Fixtures are used to securely locate (position in a
specific location or orientation) and support the work, ensuring that all parts
produced using the fixture will maintain conformity and interchangeability.
 Radius gauge
Aradius gauge, also known as afillet gauge,is atoolused to measure
theradiusof an object.
Radius gauges require a bright light behind the object to be measured. The gauge
is placed against the edge to be checked and any light leakage between the blade
and edge indicates a mismatch that requires correction.
 A good set of gauges will offer both convex and concave sections, and allow for
their application in awkward locations.
Every leaf has a different radius. The material of the leaves is stainless steel. It is
of two types:
1. Internal
2. External.
It is used to check the radius of inner and outer surfaces.
 Vernier calliper
AVernier scaleis a device that lets the user measure morepreciselythan could be
done unaided when reading a uniformly divided straight or circular measurement
scale. It is ascalethat indicates where the measurement lies in between two of
the marks on the main scale.
 Experiment - 2

To investigate the levelling,

alignment and general
condition of a vertical column
drilling machine.
 Drilling

Drilling is the operation of originating a

cylindrical hole
Hole is generated by rotating cutting
edges of drill, which exerts large force on
the WP to originate a hole.
 Principle of Drilling
Machine
Drilling is an operation of generating a hole of different
diameters by means of rotating cutting tools of
different diameters. The tool used for drilling hole is
called as drill.
Similar operations like boring, reaming, counter boring,
counter sinking, tapping etc. are also performed with
the drilling machine.
This is done by holding the tools rigidly in the tool
holding device know as Chuck. Thus in this machining
operation the tool is rotating one while the work piece
is stationary one, which rests on the working table.
Vertical Drilling Machine
 Major Components of Drill
Machine
1. Base
It is a part of the machine on which the vertical column
is mounted.
2. Column
It is the vertical member of the drilling machine. It
supports table and the head including driving
mechanism.
3. Table
It is mounted on the column. T slots are provided on it
to clamp the work piece on it.
The table may be of circular or rectangular in shape. The
position of the table can be adjusted vertically on the
column to hold the work piece at different height below
the drill tool.
 Major Components of Drill
Machine
4. Head
It is mounted on the top of the column. It consists
of driving and feeding mechanism for the spindle.
5. Spindle
Spindle is a vertical shaft which holds the chuck and
drill. Rotary motion of the spindle is given directly
to the tool to cut the material from the work piece.
6. Spindle drive and feed mechanism
Multiple speeds may be obtained by a step cone
pulley drive or by gear. Feed mechanism provided
in drilling machine is either by quick reverse hand
feed or by sensitive hand feed. The feed movement
may be controlled by hand or power.
 Operations performed on the Drilling
Machine

1. Drilling
2. Reaming
3. Boring
4. Counter boring
5. Countersinking
6. Tapping
7. Grinding
 Alignment tests onvertical drilling
machine

The alignment test on a machine tool is carried out to check the grade ofmanufacturing accuracy of the
machine tool.
The geometrical checks made on machine tools are :
* Straightness and flatness of guide ways and slide ways of machine tool.
* Flatnessof machinetables
*Parallelism,equidistanceandalignmentofthe slide ways.
* True running and alignment of shaft and spindle.
* Leadof lead screw or error in pitch.

The geometrical test is carried out tocheck the grade of manufacturing accuracy of the machine tool.
Practical test is carried out to check the accuracy of the finished component.
Geometrical test consists of checking therelationship between various machine elements when the machine tool
is idle.
Practical test consists of preparing the actualtest jobs on the machine andchecking the accuracy of the jobs
produced.
Importance of alignment test : The geometry of various shapes is based on the relative motion between various
machine parts and hence on alignment of various parts.
their parameters subjected to tests are :
* Stiffness and rigidity of the machine tool and its components parts.
* The quality and accuracy of the control devices and the driving mechanism.
Alignment tests onvertical drilling
machine

*Properly installed in
bothhorizontal (longitudinal
and transverse directions)
and vertical directions.
1. Flatness of clamping
surface of base:
*Straight edge on two
gauge blocks
*Feeler gauges gives error
* Error should not exceed
0.1/1000 mm clamping
surface
* Surface should be concave
3. Perpendicularity of drill head
guide to the base plate :
*Tested inboth verticalplane(a)
and in a plane at 90 to the above
plane (b)
*Framelevelwithgraduationsfro
m 0.03 to 0.05 mm/m
*Error should
notexceed0.25/1000mm for (a)
and 0.15/1000 mm for (b)
4. Perpendicularity of drill head
guide with table :
5. Perpendicularity of spindle
sleeve with base plate :
*Testedinboththeplanesusingf
rame level
*Errorshouldnotexceed0.25/10
00mm for plane (a) and
0.15/1000 mm for plane (b)
6. True running of spindle
taper :

*Testmandrelisplacedinthetap
ered hole of spindle

*Dialindicator

*Spindlerotatedslowly

*Errorshouldnotexceed0.03/10
0 mm for machines with taper up
to MorseNo. 2 and 0.04/300 mm
for machines with taper larger
than Morse No.
7. Parallelism of the spindle
axis with its vertical
movement :
*Testisperformedintotwoplane
sA&B
*Testmandrelanddialindicator
*Spindleisadjustedinthemiddle
position of its travel
*Permissibleerrorsare:Formac
hines with taper up to
MorseNo.2 0.03/100 mm for
plane A and 0.03/100 mm for
plane B.
*Formachineswithtaperlargert
han Morse No. 2 0.05/300 mm for
plane A and 0.05/
300 mm forplane B.
8. Squareness of
clamping surface of
table to its axis :

*Dialindicator

*Tableisslowlyrotated

* Error should
notexceed0.05/300
mm diameter
9. Squareness of spindle
axis with table :
*Straightedgeplacedinpositio
n AA and BB

*Worktableinmiddleposition of
its vertical
travel*Dialindicator*A 1800
A

*The permissible errors

are0.08/300 mm for AA
and0.05/300 mm for BB.
10. Total deflection :
*Drillheadandtablearearrange
din their middle position.

*Dialindicator

* Dynamometer
 Experiment

Cutting single start and multi start threads of given sizes

on LB-17 Centre lathe.
 Threads

Thread
Helical ridge of uniform section formed on inside or
outside of cylinder or cone
Used for several purposes:
Fasten devices such as screws, bolts, studs, and nuts
Provide accurate measurement, as in micrometer
Transmit motion
Increase force
 Procedure to Set the Quick-
Change Gearbox for Threading
1. Check drawing for thread pitch required
2. From chart on quick-change gearbox, find whole
number that represents pitch in threads per inch or in
millimeters
3. With lathe stopped, engage tumbler lever in hole,
which is in line with the pitch
4. Set top lever in proper position as indicated on chart
5. Engage sliding gear in or out as required
6. Turn lathe spindle by hand to ensure that lead screw
revolves
7. Recheck lever settings to avoid errors
 Thread-Chasing dial
Lathe spindle and
lead screw must be in
same relative position
for each cut
-Thread-chasing dial
attached to carriage for
this purpose
Dial has eight divisions
-Even threads use any
division
-Odd threads either
numbered or unnumbered:
not both
 Thread Cutting

Produces a helical ridge of uniform section on

workpiece
Performed by taking successive cuts with
threading tool bit of same shape as thread form
required
Work may be held between centers or in chuck
 Procedure to Set Up a Lathe
for Threading (60 Thread)
1. Set lathe speed to speed used for turning
2. Set quick-change gearbox for required pitch
in threads per inch or in millimeters
3. Engage lead screw
4. Secure 60 threading tool bit and check
angle using thread center gage
5. Set compound rest at 29 to right; set to
left for left-hand thread
6. Set cutting tool to height of lathe center
point
6. Mount work between centers
Make sure lathe dog is tight on
work
If work mounted in chuck, it must
be held tightly
7. Set tool bit at right angles to work,
using thread center gage
8. Arrange apron controls to allow split-
nut lever to be engaged
 Thread-Cutting Operation

Procedure to cut a 60 thread

1. Check major diameter of work for size
2. Start lathe and chamfer end of workpiece with side
of threading tool to just below minor diameter of
thread
3. Mark length to be threaded by cutting light groove at
this point with threading tool while lathe revolving
 Thread-Cutting Operation

4. Move carriage until point of threading tool near right-

hand end of work
5. Turn cross feed handle until threading tool close to
diameter, but stop when handle is at 3 o'clock
position
6. Hold cross feed handle in this position and set
graduated collar to zero
7. Turn compound rest handle until threading tool lightly
marks work
8. Move carriage to right until tool bit clears
end of work
 Thread-Cutting Operation

8. Feed compound rest clockwise about .003 in.

9. Engage split-nut lever on correct line of thread-
chasing dial and take trial cut along length to be
threaded
10. At end of cut, turn cross feed handle
counterclockwise to move tool bit away from work
and disengage split-nut lever
12. Stop lathe and check number of tpi with thread pitch
gage, rule, or center gage
 Thread-Cutting Operation

12. After each cut, turn carriage handwheel to bring tool

bit to start of thread and return cross feed handle to
zero
13. Set depth of all threading cuts with compound rest
handle
See Table 55.2 and Table 55.3
When tool is fed in at 29, most of the
cutting is done by the leading edge of
tool bit.
Table 55.3: Depth setting
for cutting 60 ISO
Compound Rest Setting
Pitch (mm)
(mm) 0 30 29
0.35 0.19 0.21 0.21
0.4 0.21 0.25 0.24
0.45 0.24 0.28 0.27
0.5 0.27 0.31 0.31
0.6 0.32 0.37 0.37
0.7 0.37 0.43 0.43
0.8 0.43 0.5 0.49
Portion of table taken
from textbook
Table 55.2Depth settings for
cutting 60 national form threads*

Compound Rest Setting

tpi 0 30 29
24 .027 .031 .0308
20 .0325 .0375 .037
18 .036 .0417 .041
16 .0405 .0468 .046
14 .0465 .0537 .0525 Portion of table taken
13 .050 .0577 .057 from textbook
11 .059 .068 .0674
 Thread-Cutting Operation

15. Apply cutting fluid and take successive cuts until top
(crest) and bottom (root) of thread are same width
16. Remove burrs from top of thread with file
17. Check thread with master nut and take further cuts
 To Reset a Threading Tool

Must reset when need to remove partly threaded

work from lathe, tool removed for regrinding, or
work slips under lathe dog
Procedure
1. Set up lathe and work for thread cutting
2. Start lathe, toolbit clear of work, engage split-nut
lever on correct line
3. Allow carriage to travel until toolbit opposite any
portion of unfinished thread
4. Stop lathe, leaving split-nut lever engaged
 To Reset a Threading Tool

4. Feed toolbit into thread groove using only compound

rest and crossfeed handles until right-hand edge of
toolbit touches rear side of thread
5. Set crossfeed graduated collar to zero
6. Back out threading tool using crossfeed handle,
disengage split-nut lever, and move carriage until
toolbit clears start of thread
8. Set crossfeed handle back to zero and take trial cut
without setting compound rest
9. Set depth of cut using compound rest handle and
finish thread to required depth
 Multiple Threads

Used when necessary to obtain increase in lead

and deep, coarse thread cannot be cut
May be double, triple or quadruple, depending
on number of starts around periphery of work
Pitch: distance from point on one thread to
corresponding point on next thread
Lead: distance nut advances lengthwise in one
complete revolution
Single-start: pitch and lead equal
Double-start: lead twice the pitch
Triple-start: lead three times pitch
 Double Thread
Single Thread

Triple Thread
 Multiple Threads May
be Cut on a Lathe

1. Using accurately slotted driveplate or faceplate

2. Disengaging intermediate gear of end gear train
and rotating spindle desired amount
3. Using thread-chasing dial
Only for double-start threads with odd-
number lead
 Experiment

Tostudy the effect of tool

geometry on the chip thickness
ratio
Tostudy the influence of tool
geometry, work material and the
cutting speed on the process of
chip formation
To measure the shear plane angle
 TOPICS
Introduction

Mechanics of chip formation

Types of chips produced in meta cutting

Mechanics of oblique cutting

Cutting forces and power

Temperature in cutting

Tool life : Wear and failure

Surface finish and integrity

Machinability
 Introduction :
Cutting process : Remove material from the
surface of the work piece by producing chips

Turning operation : the work piece is rotated an a

cutting tool removes a layer of material as it
moves to the left

Cutting off: Cutting tool moves radially inwards

and separated the right piece from the back of
the blank.

Slab-milling rotating cutting tool removes a layer

of material from the surface of the work piece

End-milling rotating cutter travels along a certain

depth in the work piece and produces a cavity
 Factors influencing cutting process

Parameter Influence and interrelationship

Cutting speed depth of Forces power, temperature rise,tool life, type of chips,
cut,feed,cutting fluids. surface finish.
Tool angles As above; influence on chip flow direction; resistance to
tool chipping.
Continuous chip Good surface finish; steady cutting forces; undesirable in
automated machinery.
Built-up-edge chip Poor surface finish, thin stable edge can product tool
surface.
Desirable for ease of chip disposal; fluctuating cutting
Discontinuous chip
forces; can affect surface finish and cause vibration and
chatters.
Temperature rise. Influences surface finish, dimensional accuracy, temperature
rise, forces and power.
Tool wear Influences surface finish, dimensional accuracy, temperature
rise, forces and power.
Machinability Related to tool life, surface finish, forces and power
Mechanics of chip formation

Orthogonal cutting
Rake angle Alpha
Relief angle ( clearance angle)
Shear angle ( Pi)
Thickness of a chip Tc
Depth of cut- T0
Cutting ratio r = To / Tc
= Sin Pi / Cos ( pi- Alpha )
 Mechanism of chip formation

Fig (a) Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip formation in metal
cutting. (b) Velocity diagram in the cutting zone.
Mechanism of chip formation

Chip compression ratio = 1 / r

Always > unity
On the basis of fig 20.4-a
Shear strain gama
Gama = AB/OC = AO/OC + OB/OC
Gama = Cot Pi + tan ( Pi Alpha )
Note : for actual cutting operation shear strain > 5
Mechanism of chip formation

Shear angle adjusts itself to minimize cutting force

Shear plane is the plane of maximum shear stress
Pi = 45 + Alpha / 2 Beta / 2
Beta : Friction angle
Mu coefficient of friction
Mu = tan beta
Mass continuity has to be maintained
So , we have
 Mechanism of chip formation

V To = Vc Tc
Vc = Vr
Vc = V Sin pi / Cos ( pi Alpha )
Vc : Velocity of a chip
V : Cutting Speed
Vs : Velocity of shearing
From trigonometric relation
V / cos ( pi Alpha ) = Vs / Cos ( Alpha ) = Vc / Sin ( pi )
 Mass continuity has to be maintained
So , we have
V To = Vc Tc
Vc = Vr
Vc = V Sin pi / Cos ( pi Alpha )
Vc : Velocity of a chip
V : Cutting Speed
Vs : Velocity of shearing
From trigonometric relation
V / cos ( pi Alpha ) = Vs / Cos ( Alpha ) = Vc / Sin
( pi )
 Types of chips

Continuous
Built up edge
Serrated or segmented
Discontinuous

Fig20.5 Basic types of chips and their photomicrographs produced in metal cutting (a) continuous ship with a
narrow,straight primary shear zone; (b) secondary shear zone at the chip tool interface;(c) continuous chip with
large primary shear zone; (d) continuous chip with built-up-edge;(e) segmented or nonhomogeneous chip and (f)
Continuous chips

Continuous chips are usually formed at high rake angles

and/or high cutting speeds.
A good surface finish is generally produced.
continuous chips are not always desirable, particularly
in automated machine tools,
tend to get tangled around the tool
operation has to be stopped to clear away the chips.
Built-up edges chips

BUE consists of layers of material from the workpiece

that are gradually deposited on the tool.

BUE then becomes unstable and eventually breaks up

BUE material is carried away on the tool side of the chip

the rest is deposited randomly on the workpiece surface.

BUE results in poor surface finish

reduced by increasing the rake angle and therefore

decreasing the depth of cut.
 Discontinuous chips
Discontinuous chips consist of segments that may be
firmly or loosely attached to each other

These chips occur when machining hard brittle

materials such as cast iron.

Brittle failure takes place along the shear plane before

any tangible plastic flow occurs

Discontinuous chips will form in brittle materials at low

rake angles (large depths of cut).
 Chip Breakers

Long continuous chip are

undesirable
Chip breaker is a piece of metal
clamped to the rake surface of the
tool which bends the chip and
breaks it
Chips can also be broken by
changing the tool
geometry,thereby controlling the
chip flow
 Chip Formation in Nonmetallic Materials

Fig: a) cutting with an oblique tool b) Top view showing the inclination angle, i.
c) Types of chips produced with different inclination
 Mechanism of Oblique Cutting

Fig: a)right hand cutting tool.Although these tools have traditionally been
produced from solids tool-steel bars,they have been largely replaced by
carbide or other inserts of various shapes and sizes,as shownin b).The
vcarious angles on these tools and their effects on machining are described
 Effect of cutting speed

Zone I : Discontinuous chip. Initially poor surface

finish. It improves as speed increases and the chip
becomes semi-discontinuous.
Zone II : BUE is formed; continue till the
recrystallization temperature is reached.
Zone III : Continuous chip without BUE.
 Temperature In Cutting

Fig:Typical temperature distribution in Fig:Percentage of the heat generated in

the cutting zone. cutting going into the workpiece,tool,and
chip,as a function of cutting speed.
 Temperature Distributions

Fig:Temperatures developed in turning 52100 steel: a) flank temperature

distribution;and b)tool-chip interface temperature distribution
 Tool Life: Wear and Failure

1. Flank wear : It occurs on the

relief face of the tool and the
side relief angle.

2. Crater wear : It occurs on the

rake face of the tool.

3. Chipping : Breaking away of a

small piece from the cutting
edge of the tool .
Fig (a) Flank and crater wear in a cutting
tool.tool moves to the left. (b) View of
the rake of a turning tool,showing nose
radius R and crater wear pattern on the
rake face of the tool c)View of the flank
face of a turning tool,sowing the average
flank wear land VB and the depth-of-cut
line (wear notch)
 Forces acting in 2-Dimensional cutting

Cutting forces can be

measured by using suitable
dynamometers or force
transducers mounted on the
machine tool
They can also be calculated
from the amount of power
consumption, that occurs
Fig :Forces acting on a cutting tool in a
during cutting. two dimensional cutting .Note that the
resultant force,R,must be collinear to
balance the forces
 Forces in Machining

Assumptions:
The tool tip is sharp, and that the chip makes
F = Frictional force between the tool and contact only with rake face of the tool.
The cutting edge is perpendicular to the cutting
chip velocity
N = Normal force The deformation is two dimensional, i.e, no side
= Friction angle; spread
FS = Shear force The deformation takes place in a very thin zone
Fn = Normal force to shear Continuous chip without BUE
FC = Cutting force Workpiece material is rigid and perfectly plastic
Ft = Thrust force Coefficient of friction is constant
The resultant force on the chip R' applied at the
shear plane is equal, opposite and co-linear to
the resultant force R applied to the chip at the
chip-tool interface.
Merchants Circle Diagram

: Rack angle
: Frictional angle
: Shear angle
Ft : Thrust Force
Fn: Normal Shear Force
Fc: Cutting Force
Fs: Shear Force
F: Frictional Force
N: Normal Frictional Force
V: Feed velocity
Limitations of Merchants Circle

Some limitations of use of MCD are :-

Merchants Circle Diagram (MCD) is valid only for
orthogonal cutting.
By the ratio, F/N, the MCD gives apparent (not
actual) coefficient of friction.
It is based on single shear plane theory.
Result from merchants circle

Following conclusions/results are drawn from MCD :-

Shear angle is given by
= 45 + /2 /2
For practical purpose, the following values of has
been suggested:
= for >15
= 15 for <15