EDM and USM of Hard Materials: K. P. Rajurkar University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA

EDM and USM of Hard Materials
K. P. Rajurkar
University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA
Presenation Outline
Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) of

Titanium Alloys
Ultrasonic Machining of Silicon and Bone
Summary
2
Background
The highest Strength-

to-Weight Ratio of any
of today's structured
metals.
http://seekingalpha.com/article/194965-titanium-metal-of-the-gods
Excellent corrosion
resistance and
biocompatibility
3
Main Uses Of Titanium Alloys
armor, chemical processing,

marine, medical, power
generation and sporting
goods:24%(2009)
aerospace applications: 76
% (2009)
Source: ITA
4
Aerospace
discs
aerospace components
5
Titanium Usage On Boeing Aircraft
Source: ITA from Boeing Commercial Aircraft Group
impeller
6
Automobile
Nozzles
Engine
Crankshaft
Titanium Spring
Exhaust (Muzzys Inc., USA)

Suspension upright
7
Biomedical
screw
Joint implants
http://news.medical-engineering.co.uk/index.php/met/2008/02
medical instruments
8
Available Titanium Processing Methods
Process Geometry Prototype Batch Mass

Production Production
Turning 0 + + 0
Milling + + + 0
Grinding 0 + 0 -
EDM + + + -
ECM 0 + + -
RUM + + + -
Laser + + + -
Legend: + Good 0 Fair - Poor

9
Performance of Processing Methods
Process Work Surface

Mechanism Finish Min. Aspect
Material (Ra) Size Ratio
Turning Hardness Shearing 5-10 nm 10 m 12

< 40 HRC
Milling Hardness Shearing 20-80 nm 4-8 m 25

< 40 HRC
Grinding Hardness Shearing, < 4 nm 100 m 15

30-60 HRC Fracture
EDM Electrically Melt, Evap, 0.1-0.8 m 1 m 25

conductive Spalling
ECM Electrically Electrolysis 0.1 m 1 m 10

conductive
USM/RUM Brittle/Hard Fracture <0.1m 2 m 25
10
Why Titanium is difficult-to-machine, and How to?
Use low cutting speeds
Poor heat conductivity Use generous amounts
of cutting fluid
Strong alloying tendency or
Special tools and
chemical reactivity with
machining parameters
materials in the cutting tools
Low modulus of elasticity
Prone to work-hardening
MaxiMill 211-20(CERATIZIT)
50% of the final cost of titanium

Cutting tool with CVD coating
breaker inserts (Mitsubishi ) parts is attributed to machining!
11
Why Electrical Discharge Machining?
A thermal process can remove any
conductive material regardless the
hardness
No chemical reactions between
tool and workpiece
Neglectable cutting force AGIE CNC Ram EDM
Low cost
Stages of single discharging process

http://us.gfac.com/newsroom/press/files/Aerospace%20MIB.pdf [Kunidea, CIRP Annals Manu. Tech., 54(2), 2005:64-87]
12
Stable and high performance
EDM of titanium alloys is still
Stabilization?
Efficiency?

steel Ti6Al4V
SEM images of machined surfaces by EDM

(a) Steel; (b) Ti6Al4V
[M.S. Li, Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China,19(2009) s434-s439.]
Limited thermal conductivity and CTE of Ti6Al4V prevent the

forming of debris and easy to cause the collision of the molten
droplet on the surface to form mushy platelets
Comparison of Thermal and Electrical properties
Easy to EDM materials
EDM tool material

Diagram of energy distribution in EDM
Energy distribution influences

the MRR and TWR
Factors affecting stability and energy distribution
Tool and workpiece material properties
Thermal Conductivity
Melting Point
Specific heat
Electrical Resistivity
Coefficient of thermal expansion(CTE)
Dielectric Fluid
Fluid type
Flushing
Electrical parameters
Discharge peak current
Pulse Duration and Polarity
Duty Factor
Die-sinking EDM of Ti6Al4V alloy
Influence of Discharge peak current
Ip and Ton have the dominant contributions to MRR
and TWR [Pradhan2005, Kao2010]
Higher Ip leads to higher MRR and TWR, rougher
surface, and thicker white layer
Cross-sectional views showing white layer variation in EDMd surfaces at:

(a) 3A, (b) 6A and Ton:100 s, Dielectric: Kerosene [Hasalk2007]
SEM micrographs of ED machined surfaces at different pulse currents:

(a) 3A, (b) 6A Ton:100s, Dielectric: Kerosene [Hasalk2007]
Lower discharge current is the key factor to obtain a better

surface quality in EDM of Ti6Al4V
Influence of Pulse Duration and Polarity
Pulse duration directly determines not only the total periodical
discharge energy but also the energy distribution on electrodes
Effect of pulse duration on machining efficiency

[M.S. Li, Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China,19(2009) s434-s439.]
Negative tool polarity and short pulse duration are suitable for
Titanium micro machining
a
SEM micrographs of internal features of micro-hole at different Ton.

a) Ton:1s, b) Ton:10 s (Ip:0.5 A/Flushing:0.1kgcm-2/DutyFactor:0.6)
B. B. Pradhan, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 41.(2009)10941106.
Positive tool polarity is suitable for long pulse duration
machining
positron-process predominance
carbon layer protection effect on anode
(a) Ti6Al4V Workpiece b) Copper Electrode

(c) Compositions of EDMd surface Elements
C Cu Ti Al V
Workpiece 18.49 0.63 73.34 5.10 2.44
Electrode 25.55 35.35 36.15 1.37 1.58
Surfaces of workpiece and bundled electrode after EDM (Ip:127A)
[L.GU,Electrical Discharge Machining of Ti6Al4V with Bundled Electrode,2011,IJMT,under review]
Influence of Duty Factor
-An appropriate duty factor is necessary to keep the stability during
EDM of Titanium
Best duty factor:20%
Temperature
increases with
increasing of
duty factor
MRR decrease
Workpiece temperature and MRR VS. duty factor (Ip60A/Vsrv120V/Ton20s/Electrode-)

[P. Fonda, Journal of materials processing technology,202(2008)583589.]
High duty factor

causes undesirable
arcing and slight
damage to the
surface
SEM pictures of workpiece surfaces at different duty factors

(Ip60A/Vsrv120V/Ton20s/Electrode-)
[P. Fonda, Journal of materials processing technology,202(2008)583589.]
S/N response graph for MRR, TWR and surface roughness with duty
factor
[J. Y. Kao, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 47(2010) 395402.]
Smaller duty factor (<=50%) is generally

preferred in machining of titanium alloys
Larger duty factor is suitable for machining with

powerful flushing conditions and small currents.
hole drilling
micro EDM
Influence of Dielectric liquid
Hydrocarbon oil-based dielectric Water-based dielectric
decompose dissociate
by heat by discharge
carbon other by-products oxygen hydrogen
chemical chemical
Titanium
reactions reactions
TiC/Ti24C15/TimCn TiO/ TiO2

melting point (3150C) melting point (1750 C)
Lower MRR Higher MRR

Different composition on the workpiece surface
X-ray diffraction patterns of the workpiece surface machined in

(a) kerosene (b) distilled water
[S.L. Chen, J. of Materials Processing Technology,87(1999)107111]
Different surface microstructures by EDM in kerosene or water
released oxygen in distilled water accounts for the increase in the
discharge stability, larger debris particle size and higher MRR
Typical scanning electron micrographs of the debris particles

(Tp=100s; Ip=24 A).
Different surface microstructures by EDM in kerosene or water
Compared to distilled water, workpiece machined with kerosene has
thicker recast layer and less micro cracks
Reason: specific heat of water(4.2103J/KgC) is twice
of that of kerosene(2.1103J/KgC)
Cross-section of the microstructure near the top of an EDMd surface for

different dielectrics (Tp=100s; Ip=24 A)
more micro cracks
SEM photgraphs of the crack distribution of an EDMed surface for different

dielectrics (Tp=100s; Ip=24 A)
powder-mixed dielectrics
Compared with pure dielectrics, additive mixed dielectric
helps to form a lowest recast layer
Kerosene De-ionized water Powder mixed
Kerosene
0.5 A,Ton1 s
Kerosene De-ionized Powder mixed

1.5 A,Ton10 s
water water
SEM micrographs of white layer of machined microholes walls using different

dielectrics [G. Kibria, Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2010) 48:557570]
powder-mixed dielectrics
Compared with kerosene only and kerosene with SiC powder, machining with
Al powder added kerosene has the largest gap and can obtain the best surface
with lowest MRR because the added powder disperses the discharging energy.
Ant
Ti6Al4V
Workpiece
Multiple micro slits workpiece size. 0.80.80.6 mm

Electrode: Cu (+); thickness of electrode 0.50 mm; Ip0.1 A; Ton10 s;
[H.M. Chow, J. of Materials Processing Technology,101(2000)95-103.]
Deionized water with urea solution
The distilled water that contained
TiN ceramic layer generated Low
urea yielded a smoother
friction coefficient
surface than was obtained when
High wear resistance
only water dielectrics was used.
SEM micrographs of machined surface with different dielectrics (Ip, 10A; tp,
100 ms)[B.H.Yan, J. Machine Tools & Manufacture 45 (2005) 194200]
Flushing
effective flushing is more important and necessary
during EDM of titanium alloy
Flushing methods
side flushing
tool orbit motion
tool jumping flush
tool rotation
tool internal flushing(single-hole/multi-hole)
Flushing pressure
micro EDM less than 0.05 MPa
die-sinking EDM less than 0.6 MPa
hole drilling EDM 7.5-10MPa
EDM with Bundled Electrode
strength of flushing should be
maintained in an appropriate range Single hole tool
in EDM of titanium alloy
much higher rotation speed reduces the
Multi-hole tool
MRR
Hole drilling
Single-hole: Higher MRR Lower TWR
Comparison of MRR(Left) and TWR(Right) in single hole and multi hole internal
flushing conditions Ip:20A,Ton/Toff:38/23s,Dielectric pressure:75bar,Tool material:
copper [O. Yilmaz, J. of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 51(1-4)(2010)185-194.]
Ti6Al4V EDM with Bundled-Electrode

Advantages:
Rapid Tooling
Multihole internal flushing
Inlet pipe
Clamps
Bundled electrode
Workpiece
Machine Table
Bundled electrode(left) and its end surface(right)

over 4.5m/s at the periphery
Simulation result of multi-hole inner-flushing with bundled electrode

Highest MRR with the bundled electrode was 150 mm3/min,
about 5 times that of solid electrode
150 Multi-hole inner-flushing MRR TWR 100

Jumping flushing MRR TWR
120 80
MRR(mm /min)
90 60
TWR(%)
3
60 40
Arcing when EDM
with jumping
30 20
flushing
0 0
40 60 80 100 120 140
Peak current(A)
Comparison of MRR and TWR of EDM with bundled electrode and solid
electrode (Ton:24sBundled electrode flushing flow rate: 2.5L/min)
Tool material
Influence energy distribution
impact on machining precision and quality through
influencing the tool wear ratio
Micro EDM tool materials
Tungsten, copper-tungsten alloy, silver-tungsten
alloy
In macro die-sinking EDM, graphite tool exhibits the
highest MRR and lowest TWR, while poorest surface
and largest white layer thickness (tool materials:
Copper, Graphite, Aluminum)[Hasalk2007]
Vibration Assistance [W.S. Zhao2002,T. Endo2006]
Improve the gap state

Reduce debris adhesion
Reduce short circuit
Reduce thickness of white layer
Increase aspect ration in hole drill
(a) (b)
Machining time and tool wear comparison Square shaft fabricated

(a) without vibr (b) with Vibr
EDM/USM hybrid machining [Y. C. Lin2000]
Add abrasive grain(SiC) into dielectric fluid
Comparison of MRR(Left) and surface roughness(Right) for different

machining processes
Wire Electrical Discharge Machining of Titanium Alloy
Principle of WEDM
[M.J. Haddada, J. of Materials Processing Technology, 199(2008)369378.]
Influencing factors:
pulse on/off time
peak current
servo reference voltage
wire tension
wire feed rate
dielectric flow rate
dielectric resistivity
Artificial Neural Networks(ANN) model to optimize the
WEDM performance and eliminates the guesswork and
gives better result[S.Sarkar2008]
Problems caused by using deionized water
When machining Ti-46Al-2Cr alloy with WEDM in water, a
hydride layer and micro cracks were found on the
surface [G.W.Qin2003]
Solution:
hydride layer can be removed by vacuum
annealing at 400-600
Electrolysis and corrosion will occur to cause degradation of
surface quality
Solution:
Using coated wire electrode
Using shorter pulse interval(anti-
electrolysis circuit)
A power supply for fine finish was developed
-restrain the oxidation and electrolysis of titanium alloy -
(a) (b)
improve the surface quality
Cross-section view of titanium surface machined by:

(a) fine-finish power supply and (b) DC power supply.
[M. T. Yan, 15th International Symposium on Electromachining (ISEM XV), Pittsburg, April 23-27, 2007,pp.139-143.]
Principle of USM
Ultrasonic
transducer
Booster
Sonotrode
Flushing of Workpiece
Debris Abrasive
Slurry Tank Particle
Machining gap
In USM, the abrasive particles in the slurry conduct the material removal
Tool can be much softer than workpiece
Slurry refreshing to maintain gap condition
Synonyms of USM: ultrasonic drilling, cutting, slurry drilling, impact
grinding
Derivatives
Rotary ultrasonic machining, ultrasonic polishing or deburring
Micro USM Principle
The vibrations provided to the

workpiece aids in propelling
and refreshing the slurry
eliminating the need for any
further accessories to circulate
the slurry
The vibrations given to tool
has the chances of eccentric
rotation of the tool effecting
the accuracy of the machined
tool
Macro vs. Micro USM
Parameter Macro USM Micro USM
Material removal Hammering and impact Hammering and impact

fracture fracture or mixed with ductile
cutting
Vibrating part Tool Work piece
Vibrating frequency Usually above 20KHz Above 20KHz
Static load kilogram force gram force
Abrasive particle size Tens of microns Within microns
Tool size > 1mm (4-300) m

Micro USM Research at CNMR, UNL
Yu and Rajurkar : State of the Art Investigation and Research Issues in
Micro Ultrasonic Machining, Experimental Study of Tool Wear in Micro
Ultrasonic Machining.
Hu Xiao: Mechanism, Characteristics and Modeling of micro Ultrasonic
Machining, PhD thesis, 2007 (Advisor: Rajurkar).
Shreenidhi : Study of Machining characteristics and Modeling of micro
Ultrasonic Machining, Masters thesis, 2008 (Advisor: Rajurkar)..
Alaa : Adaptive cutting force control for process stability of micro
Ultrasonic Machining, Masters thesis, 2010 (Advisor: Rajurkar)..
Drilling Slotting 3-D Machining

Rotary Ultrasonic Machining
Rotary ultrasonic machining (RUM) is a hybrid
machining process that combines the material
removal mechanism of diamond grinding and
USM [Hu P et al, 2002].
PROCESS CAPABILITIES OF RUM
Ability to machine hard and brittle material
regardless of conductivity
Less heat affected zone
Good surface integrity

Principle of Micro Rotary Ultrasonic
Machining
Rotary Ultrasonic Machining X Direction
(RUM) combines the material
removal mechanisms of Rotation
ultrasonic machining and Y Z Direction
diamond grinding Direction
Mandrel
Abrasive particles are bonded
directly to rotating tool
Workpiece vibrates ultrasonically Diamond impregnated
Tool
at a frequency of 39.5 kHz
Tool approaches the workpiece
for machining Coolant
Coolant present in working gap Work piece
flushes out the generated debris
Transducer
Macro vs. Micro RUM
Parameter Macro RUM Micro RUM
Vibrating part Tool Work piece
Vibrating frequency Usually above Above 20KHz

20KHz
Abrasive type Bonded Bonded/loose
Static load (30-60) kgf (3-20) gf
Abrasive particle size (50-250) m (0.5-5)m
Tool size > 1mm (4-300) m

Process Parameters in Micro RUM
Ultrasonic Material Tool

vibration properties
Fracture Tool rotation
strength speed
Amplitude Hardness Tool
diameter
Frequency Youngs Material removal
modulus Toughness
Tool wear
Surface quality
Machining accuracy
Specific Bond type
Abrasive
heat type
Viscosity Porosity
Abrasive size and Abrasive

shape concentration
Coolant Abrasive Bond

particles
Experimental Conditions
Parameters Levels
Abrasive Grit Size 30, 50, 107~120 (m)
Ultrasonic Vibration Amplitude 1 (m)
Ultrasonic Vibration Frequency 39.5 (kHz)
Spindle Speed 0, 500, 1000, 3000, 5000 (RPM)
Static Load 5 (g)
Coolant water
Tool Tip Shape conical
Tool Feed Mode force controlled mode
Machining Time 200 (seconds)
Bone Machining: Effect of Spindle Speed and
Abrasive Grit Size on MRR
(Bone machining A.Sarwade, ISEM-XVI, 2010)

The material removal rate was found to increase with
increase in the spindle speed and abrasive grit size.
At a given speed of tool rotation, the MRR was found to
be the highest for the medium sized grit and minimum
for the superfine sized grit
Effect of Spindle Speed, Vibration Amplitude and
Grit Size on MRR
Vibration amplitude = 1 m Vibration amplitude = 2.5 m
(Work piece=Silicon, C = oil, SL = 5 g, t = 200 seconds)

Effect of Spindle Speed, Vibration Amplitude and
Grit Size on MRR
Effect of tool rotation
MRR increases with increase in spindle
speed. More power is available at the spindle
to participate in the material removal
mechanism
With increase in speed the cutting edges of
the abrasives come in contact with the
workpiece more number of times thus
removing more material
Effect of grit size
The rate at which the MRR increases with the
speed is more for the superfine abrasive grit
size than for the medium sized grit
For a bigger grit size the number of cutting
edges is small as compared to the smaller grit
Tool wear
Fractured -The tool wear was negligible for the PCD tool
Abrasive
Grain - Attritious tool wear (grain pullout), grain failure
due to abrasive grain fracture are the tool wear
types observed during micro RUM
Grain pullout was observed to occur

often on the medium grit sized tool
compared to the superfine and fine
grits. The height of the protruding Abrasive Grain
part of the grain was more for the Pulled Out
medium grits, so the moment of
force acting on the grit was more,
thus making the medium grit more
prone to pull out.
Need for Bone Machining
[Bone Anchored Hearing Appliance (BAHA) [University of Maryland Medical Center]
Bone joining Knee joint

[google.com/images]20 [Haje DP, 2006]
Desirable Characteristics of Bone Machining
Process
Low temperature rise
Low cutting force, textured surface, high
surface integrity
Quick healing after machining
High efficiency
Low mechanical stress

Bone Machining Techniques
Bone Machining Techniques Purpose
Wet grinding Provides a more precise implant bed for
implants and faster healing [Draenert FG,2007]
Milling Find out maximum temperature increment
during milling of bone under various cutting
conditions [Shin HC, 2006]
Self drilling and self tapping Screwing the implant in the body [Matsuoka M,
2011]
Bone condensing Preparation of the implant site in the bone
because it generates less heat than drilling
[Misic T, 2011]
Microwave drilling Penetrate bone tissue [Eshet Y, 2004 and
Mann RR,2006]
Ultrasonically assisted drilling Compared performance with conventional
drilling [Alam K, 2011]
Drilling Investigate compatibility with implant [Ohashi
H, 1994] investigate drilling process in bone
[Wigginst KL, 1976], find out thermal changes
caused by varying drilling speeds into bone
[Thompson H, 1958]
Machining with coated cutting tool Prepare bone for biomedical implant [Jackson
MJ, 2004]
Bone Machining Techniques
Bone Machining Techniques Purpose
Laser machining To produce an implant with define surface

macrostructure[Li J, Fartash B, 1994], Rotational
Acetabular Osteotomy (RAO) [Kim D,2004], Bone-
implant contact was found using laser machining
implant [Hallgran C, 2003]
Cutting method based on crack propagation Machining process for biomaterials, analysis of
crack propagation in bone [Sugita N, 2009]
Piezo-electric bone cutting Find out effect of piezo-electric bone cutting on
formation of vascular thrombi in the bone [See CV,
2011]
Abrasive water jet cutting Investigate whether the abrasive jet cutting quality
in cancellous bone with a biocompatible
abrasive is sufficient for the implantation of
endoprostheses or for osteotomies [Schwieger,
2003]
Ultrasonic osteotomy New method for correct condition of jaw and face
as well as bone cutting [Beziat JL, 2007]
Micro rotary ultrasonic machining Machinability of bovine bone was investigated [
Sarwade A, 2010]
Bone Machining
Micromachining of bone is necessary in stapedectomy (surgery of
ear bones [stapes]), oral surgeries, implantology and spinal
surgery.
Constraints:
Avoid damage to the neighboring tissue.
Avoid temperature rise (50C) that causes thermal damage to bone
cells (thermal necrosis). Thermal conductivity of bone is low, therefore,
no quick dissipation of generated heat.
Machining by plastic deformation, although better accuracy, leads to
increased cutting temperature, therefore, increased risk of thermal
damage.
Solution:
Vibration assisted machining involves lower cutting forces and lower
heat generation and, therefore, lower risk of tissue/cell damage.
Verification:
Experimental study using micro rotary ultrasonic machining.
Micro-RUM
Water is normally used as coolant in RUM process.
No work has been reported on using soft particles as slurry
medium in micro-RUM.
In EDM process water solution of organic compound such as
sugar, polynydric alcohol and glycerin were used and it was
found that compound with larger molecule weight shows
higher material removal rate [Masuzawa T, Tanaka K,
Nakamura Y and Kinoshita N, 1983].
What is the material removal Mechanism in Micro RUM?
Is there a relationship between the MRR, coolant particle
size and static load ?
Selection of slurry, grain size and concentration for better
surface finish. All these questions needs to be addressed.
.
System Design
Carriage
XYZ Stages
Motor
PC
Micro Tool Mandrel
Work piece
Transducer
Load sensor
RS 232
DB25 connector
Temperature
Ultrasonic Display
Generator
Transformer Thermocouples
In-house Built Experimental Setup of -RUM
28 inch
Design of Experiments
Process variables Unit Low level (-) High level (+)
Spindle speed rpm 500 3000
Static load g 3 10
Coolant viscosity Centipoises 1.008 (Water) 20 (Milk)

Design of Experiments
A 23 (two level three factor) full factorial design
was applied. The experiments were focused on
the study of the following machining parameters
:
Rotation speed: rotation speed of tool
Static load: load applied on work piece
Coolant: coolant used in the process of
machining
Minitab 14 software used to analyze data
Experimental Conditions
Parameters Values
Static Load(g) 3,5,10
Working fluid Fat free bovine Milk, Water and Milk

(10% wt, 50% wt) and 100% wt) in
water
Spindle Speed (rpm) 500, 1500, 3000
Work piece Bovine bone, Silicon
Vibration Frequency 39.5 KHz
Vibration Amplitude 1 m
Work piece Preparation
Cortical Bone
Cancellous Bon
Bone structure Bovine bone structure

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:Illu_compact_spongy_bone.jpg]
A preserved bovine rib (1976) was cut into small flat pieces.
The flat pieces of cortical bone were obtained by grinding
away cancellous bone and the curved portion of the cortical
bone.
Effect of Static Load on MRR
Effect of static load on MRR (working fluid =Milk and Water

r=3000 rpm, work piece= bovine bone)
Effect of Static Load on Temperature of
workpiece
Effect of static load on MRR and temperature rise (working fluid=

Milk and Water, r=3000 rpm)
Highest temperature observed was 42.10 C and 42.7 0 C using
milk and water as coolant respectively
Effect of Static Load on MRR and Temperature with
Different Working Fluids
A higher static load would induce a larger
pressure on working fluid particles resulting in a
higher MRR.
When machining bone with micro-RUM, the
MRR achieved by using water was the lowest.
The reason may be that while machining , tool
particles accumulate in the gap resulting in
lower MRR.
The main reason was the heat generated due
to cutting action of the tool and friction between
the tool and work piece.
Effect of Rotation Speed on MRR
Effect of rotation speed on MRR (working fluid= Milk and Water, r=500, 1500, 3000
rpm; static load=5g , Amplitude of vibration=1 m)
Effect of Rotation Speed on Temperature rise
Effect of rotation speed on temperature rise (working fluid= Milk and Water,
r=500, 1500, 3000 rpm; static load=5g , Amplitude of vibration=1 m)
Highest temperature observed during this study was 40.30 C, 40.6 0 C using milk
and water as coolant respectively.
Effect of Spindle Speed on MRR and Temperature
MRR increases with increasing spindle speed
irrespective of work material and working fluid.
When the spindle speed increases, the effective
number of cutting edges of the abrasive on the
tool surface that contact with work piece also
increases and the material removal process is
accelerated.
Another reason for the increase in MRR is the
faster debris removal effect due to the rotation
of tool.
Chipped material comes in contact with
abrasives and get crushed and act as a slurry
medium. From the figures, it can be seen that
Effect of Coolant concentration on MRR
Work piece= Bone, rotation speed=3000 rpm, coolant= Milk with different
concentration
Effect of Coolant concentration on MRR
Work piece= Silicon, rotation speed=3000 rpm, coolant= Milk with different
concentration
Results and Discussion
It was found that using milk as working fluid
leads to the highest MRR.
It seems that the non-brittle molecules of milk
have a significant effect on material removal
rate. This result can be attributed to the
influence of molecular weight on MRR.
Therefore, during machining process as load
increases, impact energy of the molecules
increases
Working fluids and due to the heaver
Molecular weight weight of
Milk molecules, more
milk 1000energy
Kdalton is exerted on
Water 18 dalton
work piece leading to higher MRR.
[Huszar K, 2004]
[http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/M/Mole.html]
Tool wear
Original tool Milk Water

Wear
Tool shape after a series of micro-RUM machining of
Bovine bone material with milk, water.
It was found that tool used for machining with milk
shows the least tool wear compared to those machined
with water.
[SEM image magnification=200X]
Tool wear
Original tool tip Tool tip after Tool tip after

Machining with Milk Machining with Water
There were 18 diamonds on the original conical tool tip.
It was noticed that after machining with water as the coolant, there
were 3 diamonds left on the conical tool tip.
When milk was used as the coolant, there were 10 diamonds left
on the conical tool tip.
[SEM image magnification=400X]
Summary
EDM can machine the difficult-to-machine
titanium and its alloys regardless their
distinguishing mechanical properties.
The special chemical, thermal and electric
properties make the titanium and its alloys
erosion process different from EDM of other
materials.
The influence of electric parameters such as
current, pulse and duty factor, and non-electric
factors such as dielectric liquid and flushing on
discharging stability, MRR, TWR and surface
quality are discussed.
Summary
RUSM can machine hard materials such as
silicon and bone.
Milk has been found to result in higher material
removal and lower tool wear.
Thank You

EDM and USM of Hard Materials: K. P. Rajurkar University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA

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EDM and USM of Hard Materials

Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) of

The highest Strength-

armor, chemical processing,

Source: ITA from Boeing Commercial Aircraft Group

Exhaust (Muzzys Inc., USA)

Process Geometry Prototype Batch Mass

Legend: + Good 0 Fair - Poor

Process Work Surface

Turning Hardness Shearing 5-10 nm 10 m 12

Milling Hardness Shearing 20-80 nm 4-8 m 25

Grinding Hardness Shearing, < 4 nm 100 m 15

EDM Electrically Melt, Evap, 0.1-0.8 m 1 m 25

ECM Electrically Electrolysis 0.1 m 1 m 10

USM/RUM Brittle/Hard Fracture <0.1m 2 m 25

50% of the final cost of titanium

Stages of single discharging process

SEM images of machined surfaces by EDM

Limited thermal conductivity and CTE of Ti6Al4V prevent the

Easy to EDM materials

EDM tool material

Energy distribution influences

Cross-sectional views showing white layer variation in EDMd surfaces at:

SEM micrographs of ED machined surfaces at different pulse currents:

Lower discharge current is the key factor to obtain a better

Effect of pulse duration on machining efficiency

SEM micrographs of internal features of micro-hole at different Ton.

(a) Ti6Al4V Workpiece b) Copper Electrode

Workpiece temperature and MRR VS. duty factor (Ip60A/Vsrv120V/Ton20s/Electrode-)

High duty factor

SEM pictures of workpiece surfaces at different duty factors

Smaller duty factor (<=50%) is generally

Larger duty factor is suitable for machining with

Hydrocarbon oil-based dielectric Water-based dielectric

carbon other by-products oxygen hydrogen

TiC/Ti24C15/TimCn TiO/ TiO2

Lower MRR Higher MRR

X-ray diffraction patterns of the workpiece surface machined in

Typical scanning electron micrographs of the debris particles

Cross-section of the microstructure near the top of an EDMd surface for

more micro cracks

SEM photgraphs of the crack distribution of an EDMed surface for different

Kerosene De-ionized Powder mixed

SEM micrographs of white layer of machined microholes walls using different

Multiple micro slits workpiece size. 0.80.80.6 mm

Ti6Al4V EDM with Bundled-Electrode

Bundled electrode(left) and its end surface(right)

Simulation result of multi-hole inner-flushing with bundled electrode

150 Multi-hole inner-flushing MRR TWR 100

Improve the gap state

Machining time and tool wear comparison Square shaft fabricated

Add abrasive grain(SiC) into dielectric fluid

Comparison of MRR(Left) and surface roughness(Right) for different

Cross-section view of titanium surface machined by:

The vibrations provided to the

Parameter Macro USM Micro USM

Material removal Hammering and impact Hammering and impact

Vibrating frequency Usually above 20KHz Above 20KHz

Static load kilogram force gram force

Abrasive particle size Tens of microns Within microns

Tool size > 1mm (4-300) m

Drilling Slotting 3-D Machining

Ability to machine hard and brittle material