CHAPTER 2

The Components
of Matter

SNSJ CHAP2 1
 CHAPTER OVERVIEW

1. Laws and Daltons Atomic Theory

2. Components of an Atom
3. Atomic Mass & Atomic Abundances
4. Periodic Table
5. Chemical Formulas
6. Writing Formulas & Names of Binary Molecular
Compounds

SNSJ CHAP2 2
 Laws of Chemical
Combination
1. Law of Conservation of Mass (by Antoine
Lavoisier): the total mass remains constant during a
chemical rxn. i.e. atoms can neither be created nor
destroyed in a chemical rxn; thus the total mass
remains unchanged

Therefore,
Total mass of reactants = Total mass of the products

E.g. the total mass of element A and B is equivalent to the total

mass of C and D in the reaction:
A+BC+D

SNSJ CHAP2 3
 Laws of Chemical
Combination
2. Law of Definite Proportions or Law of Constant
Composition (by Joseph Proust):
All samples of a compound have the same composition;
that is, all samples have the same proportions, by
mass, of the elements present in the compound.

i.e. any sample collected for the same compound would

give the same proportions of the elements present.

e.g. water sample collected in Malaysia and other countries

should give the same proportion/ratio of the hydrogen and
oxygen atoms present in a water molecule.
SNSJ CHAP2 4
 Laws of Chemical
Combination
Law of multiple proportions ( by John Dalton)
In two or more compounds of the same two
elements, the masses of one element that combine
with a fixed mass of the second element are in the
ratio of small whole numbers.

i. CO and CO2
For this example, the number of carbon atom is
constant (fixed mass of the 2nd element). Therefore,
the ratio of oxygen atoms in CO and CO2 compound
is always 1:2

SNSJ CHAP2 5
 Laws of Chemical
Combination

ii. H2O and H2O2

For this example, the number of hydrogen atom is
constant (fixed mass of the 2nd element). Therefore,
the ratio of oxygen atoms in H2O and H2O2
compound is always 1:2

SNSJ CHAP2 6
 Atomic Theory of Matter by
John Dalton
His theory explains the law of multiple proportions (all
previously discussed) and states that:
1. All matters are composed of atoms
2. All atoms of a given element are ALIKE in mass,
chemical and physical properties, but the atoms of
one element differ from the atoms of OTHER
elements.

i.e. All elements are unique. Sodium is sodium and not

lithium even though these two elements came from the
same group (Group 1 in the P.T.)

SNSJ CHAP2 7
 Atomic Theory of Matter by
John Dalton
3. Compounds are formed when atoms of different
elements unite in FIXED proportions.
i.e. Water molecule is always H2O and not H2O2 etc. The ratio
of atoms in a water molecule for H:O is always 2:1

4. A chemical reaction involves a rearrangement of

ATOMS to produce new COMPOUNDS. No atoms
are created, destroyed or broken apart in a chemical
reaction. e.g. 2H2O 2H2 + O2
No atoms are being created or destroyed. Two water
molecules simply dissociate to form 2 molecules of hydrogen
and 1 molecule of oxygen

SNSJ CHAP2 8
 The Divisible Atom
1. An atom comprises of protons, neutrons and electrons.
(also called subatomic particles)
2. Proton has a relative mass of about 1amu and charge
of 1+
3. Neutron is an electrically neutral particle (has no
charge or charge=0) with mass slightly greater than
proton.
4. Electron is negatively charged (1-) and has mass of
1/1836 relative to a protons mass. Very light!
5. Protons and neutrons are packed into a tiny positively
charged core of the atom known as the nucleus.

SNSJ CHAP2 9
 The Divisible Atom
6. The light electrons whiz around the nucleus.
7. An atom as a whole is ALWAYS neutral (net charge is
zero). i.e. the number of protons and electrons are
the same for the atom to be neutral.
From hereon, denote proton = p, electron = e- and neutron = n
8. We can describe an atom using atomic number and
mass number.
9. Atomic number (Z) = number of p in the nucleus of an
atom

SNSJ CHAP2 10
 The Divisible Atom
10. Mass number (A) = number of p + n in the nucleus of an
atom. e.g. 23
11 Na
This notation tells us that the atomic number is 11 and the
mass number is 23. So, there are 11 protons in the atom.
To make the atom neutral, sodium must have 11 e- as well.
The number of n in the atom is 23-11 = 12

11.Most elements in the P.T. have isotopes. Isotopes are

atoms that have the same number of p but different
numbers of n.
e.g. 1H, 2H and 3H are isotopes of hydrogen while 12C,
13C and 14C are isotopes of carbon

SNSJ CHAP2 11
 The Divisible Atom
12. Sodium-23 and fluorine-19 are some of the few that
have no naturally occurring isotopes.
13. Tin has the most isotopic forms; 10 of them.
14. Naturally occurring isotopes are found in FIXED
PROPORTIONS.
e.g. a natural source of chlorine contain 75.77% of 35Cl

and 24.23% of 37Cl

SNSJ CHAP2 12
 Atomic Mass

Equivalent to atomic weight. The unit is amu

1. Defined as the weighted average of the masses of

the naturally occurring isotopes of that element.
Atomic masses of the elements have already been
calculated for us and made available in the P.T.

SNSJ CHAP2 13
 Atomic Mass
2. Why is it useful to use atomic masses in our
calculations? It is to account for ALL the naturally
occurring isotopes that exist in a sample of an element.
i.e. you do not want to actually count how many of the
different isotopes you have in a sample you collect because
the elements/atoms are too small for us to see. After all, we
already know that the naturally occurring isotopes ALWAYS
come in FIXED PROPORTIONS.

So, we do not have to determine the number of isotopes and

weigh their masses for any given sample. We can easily use
the weighted average/atomic masses that have been
calculated for us
SNSJ CHAP2 14
 Atomic Mass
3. Pure isotope carbon-12 is the mass standard which is
assigned a mass of exactly 12 atomic mass units
(abbreviated a.m.u.). The atomic mass of other
elements are based on carbon-12 or is measured
relative to carbon-12.
4. 1 amu = 1.66054 x 10-24 g and therefore, only
sophisticated measuring devices can weigh atoms
this light!
5. You will learn how this small number was obtained by
mass spectrometer

SNSJ CHAP2 15
 How to calculate atomic mass

Exercise:
The 3 naturally occurring isotopes of neon are; neon-
20, 90.51%, 19.99244amu; neon-21, 0.27%,
20.99395amu; neon-22, 9.22%, 21.99138amu.
Calculate the weighted average atomic mass of neon.

Solution:
(0.9051 x 19.99244amu) + (0.0027 x 20.99395amu) +
(0.0922 x 21.99138amu) = 20.1794amu
You can check that the final result is as stated on the
PT

SNSJ CHAP2 16
 How to calculate percent abundances

Exercise:
The 2 naturally occurring isotopes of copper are copper-63,
mass 62.9298amu, and copper-65, mass 64.9278amu.
What must be the percent natural abundances of the 2
isotopes if the atomic mass of copper listed in a table of
atomic masses is 63.546amu?
Solution: 62.9298amu (x) + 64.9278amu (1-x) = 63.546amu
1.998x = 1.3818
x = 0.69159 69.16% of copper-63
This leaves only 30.84% of copper-65

SNSJ CHAP2 17
 The Periodic Table
1. The modern P.T. is based on Mendeleevs earlier
work.
2. Elements are arranged in the order of increasing
atomic number.
3. Each vertical column is called a group. The main
group is Group 1A to 8A. Elements from the same
group have similar chemical properties.
4. Periods are the horizontal rows of elements, labeled 1
to 7.

SNSJ CHAP2 18
 The Periodic Table
5. A stepped line separates the metals and nonmetals in
the P.T.
Elements to the left of the stepped line are metals
(except for hydrogen).
These metals are solid at room temperature (25oC)
except for mercury, Hg, which is a liquid.
Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity,
malleable (easy to form into a thin sheet) and
ductile (can be made into wires like copper wires
used to supply DC).

SNSJ CHAP2 19
SNSJ CHAP2 20
 The Periodic Table
6. Elements to the right of the stepped line are
nonmetals. O, N, F, Cl are gases at room temp while
C, S, P, I are brittle solids. Br is the only liquid at room
temp.
7. Metalloids/semimetals are those elements borderline
to the stepped line. They have the properties of both
metal and nonmetal.

SNSJ CHAP2 21
 The Periodic Table
8. Some elements exist naturally in molecular form: O2,
H2, N2 and all of Group 7 elements exist as diatomic
molecules.
i.e. in nature, you do not find them in the elemental form

9. Polyatomic molecules: S8, P4 contains more than 1

atom in the molecule.
10. Monatomic molecules: Group 8 (noble gases) are
stable and therefore exist in their elemental form

SNSJ CHAP2 22
 Chemical Formula
Chemical formula: a symbolic representation of the
composition of a compound expressed in terms of its
constituent elements. e.g. NH3 is ammonia, B2O3 is boron
oxide
There are several types:
1. Empirical formula: the simplest formula for a compound
because it expresses the simplest atomic ratio. Does not
reflect the actual number of atoms. E.g. CH2O for glucose
and acetic acid

2. Molecular formula: reflects the actual composition of a

molecule. E.g. C6H12O6 for glucose and C2H4O2 for acetic
acid
SNSJ CHAP2 23
 Chemical Formula
3. Structural formula: describes the arrangement of
atoms within molecules. E.g. line-angle/skeletal
formula and condensed formula. The condensed
formula is often used. E.g. The condensed formula of
propanol is CH3CH2CH2OH

4. 3-D Molecular models: represent the spatial

orientation and geometric shape of molecules. E.g.
ball-and-stick model and space-filling model

SNSJ CHAP2 24
 Structural formulae and 3-D molecular models

Ethanoic acid or acetic Skeletal formula & space-filling model of

acid (vinegar) Benzene

SNSJ CHAP2 25
Structural formulae and 3-D molecular models

CH3CH2COOH

Is the condensed formula

of propanoic acid

Line-angle/skeletal formula of butane

SNSJ CHAP2 26
 Writing Formulas & Names of
Binary Molecular Compounds
Binary means two. Therefore, binary molecular
compounds refer to a compound which has 2
elements as its constituent.
For different types of compounds, different naming
schemes are being adopted
Some of the compounds that we are learning:
Nonmetal
Ionic
Acid and base
Organic
Alcohol
Carboxylic acid

SNSJ CHAP2 27
 Writing Formulas & Names of
Binary Molecular Compounds
For nonmetals:
1. We start by writing down the formula of a compound.
Write the symbol of the element that is farther to the left
of the P.T. or the higher in the group.
E.g. nitrogen monoxide is written as NO because nitrogen is
from Group 5 while oxygen is from Group 6

2. Name the compound in two words; the first word is of

the element that appears first in the formula and the
second word is the altered version of the second
element. Change the ending of the word to ide.
E.g. nitrogen oxide and not nitrogen oxygen

SNSJ CHAP2 28
 Writing Formulas & Names of
Binary Molecular Compounds

3. Numeric prefixes are used to denote the number of

atoms of each element in the molecule. E.g. nitrogen
monoxide

Number of atoms Prefix Examples

1 mono CO carbon monoxide
2 di CO2 carbon dioxide
3 tri N2O3 dinitrogen trioxide

SNSJ CHAP2 29
 Writing Formulas & Names of
Binary Molecular Compounds
4. Exception is made for H, N and a few others.
Sometimes these elements appear first in a chemical
formula. However, sometimes they appear last.
E.g. the nitrogen in NH3 and KCN or the hydrogen in NH3 and
HCl.

5. Sometimes, the vowels a and o are dropped for

ease of pronunciation.
E.g. monoxide and not monooxide.

Exercise : write the molecular formula and name of a

compound for which each molecule contains 4 fluorine
atoms and 2 nitrogen atoms
Solution: N2F4 dinitrogen tetrafluoride
SNSJ CHAP2 30
 Writing Formulas & Names of
Binary Molecular Compounds
Ionic compounds:
1. Ions are formed only through the loss or gain of e-. There
is no change in the number of n or p in the nucleus of the
atom.
2. If e- is lost, then the atom is no longer neutral and results
in a positively charged ion because now the number of p
is greater than the number of e-
3. If e- is gained, then the atom is no longer neutral and
results in a negatively charged ion because now the
number of e- is greater than the number of p in the atom.
4. The positively charged ions are called cations while the
negatively charged ions are called anions.

SNSJ CHAP2 31
 Writing Formulas & Names of
Binary Molecular Compounds
5. A monatomic ion is an ion which is made up of only 1
atom as the name suggests. A polyatomic ion is
formed when a group of bonded atoms contain a net
charge that is not zero
E.g. Na+ is a monatomic ion whereas SO42- is a polyatomic
ion.

6. The charges of an ion can be predicted just by

looking at the P.T.
Group 1 elements give up an electron to produce ions with
1+ charge
Group 2 elements give up 2 electrons to produce ions with 2+
charge
SNSJ CHAP2 32
 Writing Formulas & Names of
Binary Molecular Compounds

Group 3 elements give up 3 electrons to produce ions with 3+

charge
Group 4 is unique and usually shares their electron with other
elements
Group 5 elements gain 3 electrons to form ions with charge of
3-
Group 6 elements gain 2 electrons to form ions with charge of
2-
Group 7 elements gain 1 electron to form ions with charge of 1-
Group 8 is stable and therefore do not give up or gain electron
(no ions are produced).

SNSJ CHAP2 33
 Writing Formulas & Names of
Binary Molecular Compounds
7. A transition metal can carry 1 or more charges. A
roman numeral is used to indicate the number of
charge carried by the ion.
E.g. Fe2+ is written as iron (II) ion or ferrous ion. Fe3+ is written
as iron (III) ion or ferric ion

8. An ionic compound is made up of cations and anions

held together by electrostatic attractions.
9. Chemical formulas of ionic compounds are based on
the electrically neutral* combination of cations and
anions called a formula unit
*compounds are ALWAYS neutral just like an atom

SNSJ CHAP2 34
 Writing Formulas & Names of
Binary Molecular Compounds
10. To write a formula unit of an ionic compound, always
write the cation before the anion.
E.g. NaCl is written with the cation Na+ followed by anion Cl-

11. To name a formula unit, we start with the name of the

cation followed by the anion. If the anion is nonmetal,
then the suffix ide is used. Prefixes are never used
unless necessary.
E.g. Al2O3 is called aluminum oxide and not dialuminum
trioxide because it is understood that the aluminum cation
carries a charge of 3+ while the oxygen anion carries a
charge of 2-
Exercise: lithium oxide has the formula Li2O
SNSJ CHAP2 35
 Writing Formulas & Names of
Binary Molecular Compounds
12. However, suffixes ite and ate are used frequently
and the prefixes hypo- and per- are occasionally used
for polyatomic anions. E.g. sulfate and sulfite ions
13. If an element has more than 2 polyatomic anions, the
prefix hypo- represents one fewer oxygen atom than
the ite anion and the prefix per- represents one
more oxygen atom than the ate anion.
hypochlorite ion ClO-
Chlorite ion ClO2-
Chlorate ion ClO3-
Perchlorate ion ClO4-

SNSJ CHAP2 36
 Writing Formulas & Names of
Binary Molecular Compounds
14. If a polyatomic anion has hydrogen as a third
element, we indicate its presence in the name.
E.g. hydrogen phosphate ion in HPO42-

15. Hydrates are ionic compounds in which the formula

unit includes a fixed number of water molecules
associated with the cations and anions.
E.g. CaCl2 6H2O is calcium chloride hexahydrate.
Why do hydrates exist? Substances often collect moisture

SNSJ CHAP2 37
 Writing Formulas & Names of
Binary Molecular Compounds
For acids & bases:
1. Acids have the following characteristics:
Taste sour if diluted with enough water
Produce a pricking or stinging sensation on the skin
Turn the color of litmus from blue to red
React with many metals to produce ionic compounds and
hydrogen gas
React with bases to produce water and salt
2. Bases have the following characteristics:
Taste bitter if diluted with enough water
Feel slippery or soapy on the skin
Turn the color of litmus red to blue
React with acids to produce water and salt
SNSJ CHAP2 38
 Writing Formulas & Names of
Binary Molecular Compounds
3. The Arrhenius Concept:
Acid is a molecular compound that ionizes or breaks
up in water to form a solution containing H+ cations
and related anions. E.g. HBr H+ + Br

Base is a compound that ionizes or breaks up in water

to form a solution containing OH- anions and related
cations. E.g. NaOH Na+ + OH-

Neutralization process: Acid + Base salt + water

*Other acid-base theories such as Bronsted-Lowry and Lewis are

discussed in chap 15 of general chem II

SNSJ CHAP2 39
 Writing Formulas & Names of
Binary Molecular Compounds
Writing the formula and name of acids, bases and salts
are like writing any other ionic compounds
E.g. NaOH is sodium hydroxide, KOH is potassium
hydroxide
Molecules in the gaseous form and in the dissolved
(acidic) form:
Formula unit Gaseous form Dissolved form (in water)
HBr Hydrogen bromide Hydrobromic acid

HI Hydrogen iodide Hydroiodic acid

H2S Hydrogen sulfide Hydrosulfuric acid

SNSJ CHAP2 40
 Writing Formulas & Names of
Binary Molecular Compounds
Formula unit Name of acid Name of salt (with sodium
cation)
HClO Hypochlorous acid Sodium hypochlorite

HClO2 Chlorous acid Sodium chlorite

HClO3 Chloric acid Sodium chlorate

HClO4 Perchloric acid Sodium perchlorate

H2SO3 Sulfurous acid Sodium sulfite

H2SO4 Sulfuric acid Sodium sulfate

SNSJ CHAP2 41
 Writing Formulas & Names of
Binary Molecular Compounds
For Organic compounds:
1. Organic compounds are compounds that has carbon atom
as its backbone. They are widely used in our daily life.
E.g. propane fuel (used as a mobile stove), indigo dye for
blue jeans, gasoline for cars, nylon, vinyl plastics, aspirin
(acetylsalicylic), carbohydrate, fat, protein etc.
2. Word stems are used to denote the number of carbon
atoms in simple organic molecules. E.g. the word stem
meth- in methane indicates 1 carbon atom in a methane
molecule
3. Three common classes of organic compounds are
alkanes, alcohols and carboxylic acids
SNSJ CHAP2 42
 Writing Formulas & Names of
Binary Molecular Compounds
Alkanes (CnH2n+2)
Hydrocarbon: compounds only having C and H atoms
Called saturated hydrocarbons because their
molecules contain the maximum number of H atoms
possible for the number of C atoms (only single
bonds)
Unsaturated hydrocarbon contains double or triple
bonds, where the number of H atom is not
maximized.
Example of alkanes are methane (CH4), ethane
(C2H6) and propane (C3H8)

SNSJ CHAP2 43
 Writing Formulas & Names of
Binary Molecular Compounds
Isomers are compounds that have the same molecular
formula but different structural formulas. They are
distinctly different compounds.
E.g. Butane and isobutane. They are gases at room
temperature but butane boils at about 0oC and isobutane at
-12oC

Types of chains: straight, branched and ring structure

Alkyl groups are derived from an alkane by removing a
hydrogen atom.
E.g. methyl (-CH3) is from removing 1 H from methane

SNSJ CHAP2 44
 Writing Formulas & Names of
Binary Molecular Compounds
Cyclic alkane have the formula CnH2n and the prefix
cyclo- is used
E.g. cyclopropane, cyclohexane, methylcyclopropane

Line-angle/skeletal formulas can also be used for

open chained hydrocarbons
Functional groups confer distinctive physical and
chemical properties to an organic molecule.
E.g. alcohols have OH as the functional group,
carboxylic acids have COOH as the functional group

SNSJ CHAP2 45
SNSJ CHAP2 46
 Writing Formulas & Names of
Binary Molecular Compounds
For Alcohols:
Functional group is called hydroxyl group. Alcohols
have an OH off carbon chains
Naming: alkyl group followed by the family name
alcohol
E.g. methyl alcohol (or methanol), ethyl alcohol (or
ethanol)
Compounds having more than 1 -OH group are also
considered an alcohol.
E.g. glycerol is C3H8O3

SNSJ CHAP2 47
 Writing Formulas & Names of
Binary Molecular Compounds
For Carboxylic acids:
Functional group is called the carboxyl group
COOH
E.g. Formic acid (HCOOH), acetic acid (CH3COOH)

It is called an acid because some of the H atoms of

the carboxyl group will ionize to produce H+ ions

Neutralization process
E.g. NaOH + CH3COOH CH3COONa + H2O
Sodium hydroxide reacts with acetic acid to produce
sodium acetate salt and water
SNSJ CHAP2 48
 Finally
1. Atomic theory of matter is based on 3 laws. This theory
makes it possible for us to group and name compounds
according to their physical and chemical properties.

2. REMEMBER: There are many conventions of naming

compounds. The more common names are used in the
daily life. Just dont get confused and remember that they
all refer to the same compound!

3. Atomic masses are already calculated for us to account for

all the naturally occurring isotopes. Atomic masses can
also be referred to as atomic weight.
*Please try out all the exercises on nomenclature available in chap 2

SNSJ CHAP2 49