INTRODUCTION

TO
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

By:
Prof. N. K. Samadhiya
Dept. of Civil Engineering
IIT Roorkee

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 “Why You Should Study
Geotechnical Engineering”

Or

“Who Needs a Foundation

Engineer Anyway???”
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TYPICAL GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING PROJECT

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 WHY GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING?

“Virtually every structure is supported by soil or rock.

Those that aren’t - either fly, float, or fall over.”
-Richard Handy, 1995

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WHAT IS GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING?

Application of civil engineering to earthen materials

• Soil
• Rock
• Groundwater

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GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

 A unique combination of science, experience, judgment and a passion

for understanding the uniqueness and variability of ground conditions
resulting from the forces of nature.

 Geotechnical engineering involves investigation and engineering

evaluation of earth materials including soil, rock, ground water and
man-made materials and their systems, structural foundations and
other civil engineering works.

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 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

MECHANICS
 Soil
 Rock
 Ground Water flow DESIGN
• Foundation
• Retaining structures
• Slopes and its stability
Excavate: • Underground excavation
make (a hole or channel) by • Surface excavation
digging
• Liquefaction
• Machine Foundation
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• Landfill
 DEFINITION OF SOIL

SOIL FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES

The uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and
decayed organic matter (solid particles) with
liquid and gas in the empty spaces between the
solid particles.

AGRONOMY DEFINITION:
Soil consists of the thin layers of the earth’s crust
formed by surface weathering that are able to
support plant life.
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SOIL FORMATIONS

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Rock Cycles

Soils The final products

due to weathering
are soils

(Das, 1998) 10
 WEATHERING
Physical processes of Chemical Process of weathering
weathering  Hydrolysis
– is the reaction with water
 Unloading
–will not continue in the static water.
– e.g. uplift, erosion, or change in –involves solubility of silica and
fluid pressure. alumina
 Thermal expansion and  Chelation
contraction –Involves the complexing and removal
of metal ions .
 Alternate wetting and drying
 Cation exchange
 Crystal growth, including frost – is important to the formation of clay
action minerals
 Organic activity  Oxidation and reduction.
–e.g. the growth of plant roots.  Carbonation
–is the combination of carbonate ions
such as the reaction with CO2

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 TYPES OF SOIL
Residual soils - The weathered soil remain at the original place

Transported soils - The Weathered soil is moved and deposited to

other places.

 Glacial soils: Formed by transportation and deposition of

glaciers.
 Alluvial soils: Transported by running water and deposited
along streams.
 Lacustrine soils: Formed by deposition in quiet lakes.
 Marine soils: Formed by deposition in the seas.
 Aeolian soils: Transported and deposited by the wind.
 Colluvial soils: Formed by movement of soil from its original
place by gravity, such as during landslide
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Three Phases in Soils
S : Solid Soil particle
W: Liquid Water (electrolytes)
A : Air Air

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Three Basic Volumetric Ratios
(1) Void ratio e
Volume of voids (Vv )
e (given in decimal)
Volume of solids (Vs )

(2) Porosity n
Volume of voids (Vv )
n (given in percent)
Total volume of soil sample (Vt )

(3) Degree of Saturation S

Total volume of voids contains water (Vw )
S 100%
Total volume of voids (Vv )
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DENSITY, UNIT WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Mass
Density, ρ =
Volume
Weight Mass × g
Unit weight, γ= =
Volume Volume

g :accelerationdue to gravity
γ = ρ × g = ρ × 9.8 m
sec2
Water, γ = 9.8 kN 3
m

ρs ρs × g γs
Specific Gravity,Gs = = =
ρw ρw × g γw
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 SOIL PROPERTIES

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Gradation and
Compressibility
Structure

Soil-Water
Shear Strength
Relationships

Bearing Capacity
Atterberg’s Limits
The bearing capacity of soil is the
maximum average
contact pressurebetween the
Soil Compaction foundation and the soil which should
not produce shear failure in the soil.
Permeability 16
 APPLICATION
OF
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

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1. FOUNDATIONS

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 FOUNDATION
The lowest part of a structure is generally referred to as foundation.

It transfer the load of the superstructure to the ground on which it

is resting.

A properly designed foundation is one that transfers the structural

load throughout the soil without overstressing of soil which can
result in either excessive settlement or shear failure, both of which
can damage the structure.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF FOUNDATION

 Shallow foundations
Shallow foundations located just
below the lowest part of the
superstructure they support

 Deep Foundations
These foundations extend
considerably deeper in to earth

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 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

A foundation is
shallow if its depth is
equal to or less than
its width.

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SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

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 SHALLOW FOUNDATION TYPE

PLAN
Concentrated Load

ELEVATION
Distributed Load

Spread Footing
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 PLAN

ISOMETRIC VIEW

ELEVATION

Wall Footing

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SPREAD FOOTING

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SPREAD FOOTING

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 COMBINED FOOTING

PLAN

Combined Trapezoidal Footing

ELEVATION

Combined Rectangular Footing

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SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

Raft Foundation
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 Raft Foundation

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 DEEP FOUNDATIONS

A foundation is Deep
if its depth is more
than its width.

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DEEP FOUNDATIONS TYPES

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 PILE FOUNDATION

Pile foundations are intended to

transmit structural loads through zones
of poor soil to a depth where the soil has
the desired capacity to transmit the
loads.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF PILE

 BASED ON NATURE OF WORK  BASED ON MATERIAL  BASED ON EFFECT

OF INSTALLATION
LOAD BEARING (END BEARING) TIMBER
(FRICTION ) DISPLACEMENT
STEEL
LATERALLY LOADED / BATERED NON DISPLACEMENT
TENSION COMPOSITE
COMPACTION CONCRETE

DRIVEN CAST IN SITU

CASED
DRIVEN UNCASED

PRESSURE
BORED
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UNDERREAMED
 DOUBLE ACTING STEAM HAMMER

PRECAST PILE

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CRANE SUPPORING RIG
 RIG SUPPORTING THE PILE

SINGLE ACTING STEAM HAMMER

PRECAST PILE

DRIVING OF PILE
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UNCASED PILE INSTALLATION SEQUENCE

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 PIER FOUNDATIONS

Pier foundations are somewhat

similar to pile foundations but are
typically larger in area than piles.
An opening is drilled to the desired
depth and concrete is poured to
make a pier foundation.

• Usually, pier foundations are

used for bridges.

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 PIER FOUNDATIONS

MILLAU VIADUCT (FRANCE)

Cable stayed Bridge
Supported on 7 piers
Longest pier = 336m 42
 WELL OR CASSION FOUNDATIONS

A caisson is a structural box or

chamber that is sunk into place
or built in place by systematic
excavation below the bottom.

The top and bottom are open

during installation for open
caissons. The bottom may be
finally sealed with concrete or
may be anchored into rock.

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WELL SINKING IN PROGRESS

Grab

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TYPES OF CASSION

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1. SLOPES

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 SLOPES

IT STANDS FOR SURFACE

JOINING TWO DIFFERENT
ELEVATION

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 H2

DATUM
LEVEL

H1
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 SLOPES

NATURAL ARTIFICIAL

NATURAL SLOPES: Exist in Nature and are formed due to natural causes
eg. Hill slope

MAN MADE SLOPES: Created because of Anthropogenic activities.

eg. Cutting and embankments constructed for roads,
railway lines, canals, earth dams, open cast mines etc

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NATURAL SLOPES

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MAN MADE SLOPES

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 EMBANKMENTS

HIGHWAY EMBANKMENTS
HIGHWAY

EMBANKMENTS

GL

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 RAILWAY TRACK

EMBANKMENTS

EMBANKMENTS

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 CUTS

RAILWAY TRACK

CUTS CUTS

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 OPEN CAST MINES

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 OPEN CAST MINES

BENCHES ROAD

SLOPES

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 CANAL EMBANKMENTS

BENCHES

EMBANKMENT

CANAL

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EARTHEN DAMS

EMBANKMENT

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BUT WHY WE STUDY THESE SLOPES ?

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SLOPE FAILURE GIVE RISES TO LANDSLIDES AND AVALANCES

AND ITS LEADS TO

 ECONOMIC LOSS
 PHYSICAL LOSS
 LIFE LOSS
 SOCIAL LOSS

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HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY BLOCKAGE

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FAILURE OF EMBANKMENT OF HIGHWAY AND RAILWAY TRACK

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 HIGHWAY

EMBANKMENT

SLIPED MASS OF SOIL

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RAILWAY TRACK EMBANKMENT FAILURE

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EARTHEN DAM FAILURE

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 LIFE AND PROPERTY LOSS

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 BRIDGE SITE FOR RAIL LINE
JOINING KASHMIR TO
JAMMU ON RIVER CHENAB

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73
 SLOPES

INFINITE FINITE

INFINITE SLOPE is used to designate a constant slope of infinite extent. The

long slope of the face of a mountain. This type of slopes fail in translation

FINITE SLOPE are limited in extent. The slopes of embankments, open cast
mines and earth dams are examples of finite slopes. The slope length
depends on the height of the dam or embankment. This type of slopes fail
in rotation.

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 Failed mass

Centre of failure
Height
slope of slope
Infinite
reach Height
of
finite
Failed reach
mass Soil
mass
Plane of failure

Plane of failure

TRANSATIONAL FAILURE 75 ROTATIONAL FAILURE

CAUSES OF FAILURE OF
SLOPES:

The important factors that

cause instability in a slope and
lead to failure are:

 Gravitational force
 Force due to seepage water
 Erosion of the surface of
slopes due to flowing water
 sudden lowering of water
adjacent to a slope
 Forces due to earthquakes

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3. RETAINING STRUCTURES

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 RETAINING WALL
Retaining walls are usually built to
hold back soil mass. However,
GL2
retaining walls can also be
constructed for aesthetic
BACK
landscaping purposes. SOIL

GL1

Gravity retaining wall

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Cantilever Retaining wall
with shear key

Batter

Drainage Hole
Toe

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Photos of Retaining walls

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 CLASSIFICATION OF RETAINING WALLS

• Gravity wall-Masonry or Plain concrete

• Cantilever retaining wall-RCC
(Inverted T and L)
• Counterfort retaining wall-RCC
• Buttress wall-RCC

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Classification of Retaining walls

Backfill Backfill

Tile
Gravity RW drain L-Shaped RW
T-Shaped RW

Backfill
Counterfort Buttress
Weep
hole

Counterfort RW Buttress RW
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SOIL IMPROVEMENT

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 NEED FOR GROUND IMPROVEMENT

When a project encounters difficult foundation conditions,

possible alternate solutions are:

● Avoid the particular site

● Design the planned structure accordingly.
● Remove and replace unsuitable soils.
● Attempt to modify the existing ground or soil improvement.

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 METHODS OF SOIL IMPROVEMENT
Ground Ground Ground
Reinforcement Improvement Treatment
• Stone Columns • Deep Dynamic • Soil Cement
• Soil Nails Compaction • Lime Admixtures
• Deep Soil Nailing • Drainage/Surcharge • Flyash
• Micropiles (Mini-piles) • Electro-osmosis • Dewatering
• Jet Grouting • Compaction grouting • Heating/Freezing
• Ground Anchors • Blasting • Vitrification
• Geosynthetics • Surface Compaction
• Fiber Reinforcement
• Lime Columns
• Vibro-Concrete Column
• Mechanically Stabilized
Earth
• Biotechnical

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SOME BASIC GROUND IMPROVEMENT METHODS ARE

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 REMOVAL AND REPLACEMENT

 One of oldest and simplest methods is simply to

remove and replace the soil
 Soils that will have to be replaced include
contaminated soils or organic soils
 Method is usually practical only above the
groundwater table

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 PRECOMPRESSION
Simply place a surcharge fill on top of the soil that
requires consolidation
 Once sufficient consolidation has taken place, the fill
can be removed and construction takes place
 Surcharge fills are typically 10-25 feet thick and
generally produces settlement of 1 to 3 feet.
 Most effective in clay soil

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ADVANTAGES OF PRECOMPRESSION

 Requires only conventional earthmoving

equipment
 Any grading contractor can perform the work
 Long track record of success

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 DISADVANTAGES OF PRECOMPRESSION

 Surcharge fill must extend horizontally at least 10 m

beyond the perimeter of the planned construction,
which may not be possible at confined sites
 Transport of large quantities of soil required
 Surcharge must remain in place for months or years,
thus delaying construction

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 VERTICAL DRAINS

 Vertical drains are installed

under a surcharge load to
accelerate the drainage of
impervious soils and thus speed
up consolidation
 These drains provide a shorter
path for the water to flow
through to get away from the
soil
 Time to drain clay layers can be
reduced from years to a couple
of months

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 WICK DRAINS

 Geosynthetics used as
a substitute to sand
columns
 Installed by being
pushed or vibrated
into the ground
 Most are about 100
mm wide and 5 mm
thick

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 IN-SITU DENSIFICATION

 Most effective in sands

 Methods used in conventional earthwork are only
effective to about 2 m below the surface
 In-situ methods like dynamic deep compaction are for
soils deeper than can be compacted from the surface

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 VIBRATORY PROBE COMPACTION

Long probe
mounted onto a
vibratory pile
driver compacts
the soil around the
probe;
penetrations
spaced in a grid
pattern similar to
vertical drains
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 VIBROFLOTATION
 Probe includes the vibrator mechanism and water jets
 Probe is lowered into the ground using a crane
 Vibratory eccentric force induces densification and
water jets assist in insertion and extraction
 Vibratory probe compaction is effective if silt content
is less than 12-15% and clay is less than 3%
 Probes inserted in grid pattern at a spacing of 1.5 to 3
m

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VIBROFLOTATION

Relative
Ground Type
Effectiveness
Sands Excellent

Silty Sands Marginal to Good

Silts Poor

Clays Not applicable

Mine Spoils Good (if granular)

Depends upon
Dumped Fill
nature of fill
Garbage Not Applicable

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 VIBRO-REPLACEMENT STONE COLUMNS

Vibro-Replacement extends the range of soils that can

be improved by vibratory techniques to include cohesive
soils. Reinforcement of the soil with compacted granular
columns or "stone columns" is accomplished by the top-
feed method.

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VIBRO-REPLACEMENT STONE COLUMNS

Top-feed vibroflot rig

Adding stone in top-feed installation Bottom-feed vibroflot rig

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DYNAMIC COMPACTION

 Uses a special crane to

lift 5-30 tons to heights of
40 to 100 feet then drop
these weights onto the
ground
 Cost effective method of
densing loose sands and
silty soils up to 15 to 30
feet deep
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 GROUTING

Defined as the injection of a special liquid or slurry

material called grout into the ground for the purpose of
improving the soil or rock

 Types of grouts
 Cementitious grouts
 Chemical grouts

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 GROUTING METHODS
INTRUSION GROUTING
 Consists of filling joints or fractures with
grout
 Primary benefit is reduction in hydraulic
conductivity
 Used to prepare foundation and
abutments for dams
 Usually done using cementitious grouts
PERMEATION GROUTING
 Injection of thin grouts into the soil
 Once the soil cures, becomes a solid mass
 Done using chemical grouts
 Used for creating groundwater barriers or
preparign ground before tunneling

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 GROUTING METHODS

Compaction grouting
 When low-slump
compaction grout is injected
into granular soils, grout
bulbs are formed that
displace and densify the
surrounding loose soils.

 Used to repair structures

that have excessive
settlement
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 GROUTING METHODS
 Uses a special pipe with
horizontal jets that inject
grout into the ground at
high pressures
 Jet grouting is an
erosion/replacement
system that creates an
engineered, in situ
soil/cement product known
as Soilcretesm.
 Effective across the widest
range of soil types, and
capable of being 107

performed around
 STABILIZATION USING ADMIXTURES

 Most common admixture is Portland Cement

 When mixed with soil, forms soil-cement which is comparable to a
weak concrete
 Other admixtures include lime and asphalt
 Objective is to provide artificial cementation, thus increasing
strength and reducing both compressibility and hydraulic
conductivity
 Used to reduce expansion potential of clays
 Used in surface mixing applications

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 REINFORCEMENT
 Soil is stronger in compression than in tension
 To improve strength in tension, geosynthetics placed in soil for
soil reinforcement

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REINFORCED EARTHWALL CONSTRUCTION

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 SOIL NAILING

The fundamental
concept of soil nailing
consists of reinforcing
the ground by passive
inclusions, closely spaced
steel nails to create in-
situ coherent gravity
structure and thereby to
increase the overall shear
strength of the in-situ soil
and restrain its
displacements. 111
UNDERGROUND STRUCTURES

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 VARIOUS TYPE UNDERGROUND
STRUCTURES AND THERE UTILITIES

TUNNEL: Highway and railway tunnels, Metro projects,

Hydropower projects, Sewers

CAVERNS: Underground Railway station, Gas and Oil storage,

Nuclear waste deposit, Underground power house of
dams (eg. Sardar Sarovar, Naptha Jakhri)

SHAFT: Hydropower projects, Emergency exist for

underground structures

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 TUNNEL
A tunnel is an underground passageway, completely enclosed
except for openings for entrance and exit.

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 FACTOR AFFECTING CONSTRUCTION METHOD OF TUNNEL

The method of tunnel construction depends on factors as:

Ground conditions
The ground water conditions
The length and diameter of the tunnel
The depth of the tunnel
The logistics of supporting the tunnel excavation,
The final use and shape of the tunnel

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TUNNELLING
TUNNELLING
METHODS
METHODS

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 SHIELD TUNNELLING METHOD

 This method involves the use

of shield machine to drive the
tunnels below the ground.
 After completion of a work
shaft, the shield machine is
lowered into the shaft and
assembled there before
excavation and construction of
the tunnels.
 This construction method
causes minimal disruption to
traffic and the environment
because all the work takes
place below ground and the
ground level environment is 117

unaffected.
VARIOUS COMPONENT OF TUNNEL BORING MACHINE

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 CUT and COVER TUNNELLING METHOD
 This construction method, whereby
the site is fully excavated, the
structure built and then covered over,
uses diaphragm walls as temporary
retaining walls within the site area.
 Step one :Construction of diaphragm
walls, pin piles, and decking.
 Step two :Excavation within the
diaphragm walls, installing struts as
work progresses.
 Step three :Construction of
permanent floor slabs and walls.
 Step four : Fitting out the internal
structures, backfilling, and reinstating
the surface structures.
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121
 DRILL AND BLAST
 This tunnelling method involves the
use of explosives.
 Drilling rigs are used to bore blast
holes on the proposed tunnel
surface to a designated depth for
blasting. Explosives and timed
detonators are then placed in the
blast holes.
 Once blasting is carried out, waste
rocks and soils are transported out
of the tunnel before further blasting.
 Most tunnelling construction in rock
involves ground that is somewhere
between two extreme conditions of
hard rock and soft ground. Hence
adequate structural support
measures are required when
adopting this method for tunnelling.
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 CAVERNS
USED AS MACHINE HALL FOR UNDERGROUND POWERHOUSE FOR
HYDROELECTRIC DAMS.

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