Fundamental of Neuroscience

Exam 1 Review
2-8-2017
 Mind – Body Problem
• Dualism
Mind not material substance, mind is separate from
body (physical)
• Materialism
All phenomena, including mental events, are results of
material (physical) interactions
• Functionalism
Mental events are relationships, not dependent on
internal constitution, but rather on the way it functions
• Qualia: Internal and subjective component of
sense perceptions
 Cells of the Nervous System
Glial Cells = ‘Glue’
• Oligodendrocytes (CNS), Schwann
Cells (PNS), Astrocytes
• Support, structure, and
metabolism
• Help to form the blood brain
barrier
Neurons
• Sensory neurons
– Quick, less processing
• Motor neurons
– More processing, only 1 output
• Interneurons
– Lots of processing, only 1 output
• What type of neuron?
• Where is it located?
Cell Biology
 Cell Biology

In the nucleus of the

cell

Ribosomes in the
cytosol
Amino Acid chains =
Proteins are polypeptides = proteins
functional units
of a cell
Forces that Create Membrane Potentials
• Potential = difference
Reference Point
measured relative to a
reference point (like
distance)
• Membrane Potential: The
difference in electrical
potential between the
inside and the outside of
the cell membrane
• In neurons we have a
potential difference across
the membrane
Ionic Basis of Membrane Potential
• What causes the difference in potential
between inside and outside of the cell?
– Ions – Molecules with a net electric charge
• Ions are moved by 2 forces:
1. Diffusion – molecules move from high  low
concentrations
2. Electrostatic – opposite charges attract, similar
charges repel
• When these forces are balanced, that is
electrochemical equilibrium
Ion Concentrations at Resting Potential
OUTSIDE CELL
• K+
• Na+
• Cl-

INSIDE CELL
• K+
• Na+
• Cl-
• Large, negative anions
 At Resting Membrane Potential…
-70mV
OUTSIDE Na+
K+

K+ Na+ A-

INSIDE
 Finding Membrane Potential
• We use the Goldman Equation to look at the
permeability and concentration of each ion
species across the membrane…
PK+[K+out] + PNa+[Na+out] + PCl-[Cl-in]
Vm= PK+[K+in] + PNa+[Na+in] + PCl-[Cl-out]

• The permeability is what the cell manipulates

to achieve its different potentials (e.g. resting,
action, etc.)
 Equilibrium Potential
• Like membrane potential, but we’re only
looking at one ion
• Use the Nernst Equation:
Eion = 58 log [ion]out
[ion]in

• Tells at what voltage we can find a certain ion

at equilibrium
electrostatic forces = diffusion forces
 Equilibrium Potential of K+

Demonstrations
that proved
this!
At resting potential  more permeable to K+ & closest to K+ Equilibrium Potential

At peak in action potential  more permeable to Na+ & closest to Na+ Equilibrium Potential
 In summary…
• Every ion species has own equilibrium potential
based on differences across membrane
• The cell can control its permeability to these ions
at any time by opening or closing ion channels
• The more permeable the cell is to a given ion 
membrane shifts toward the equilibrium
potential for that specific ion
At resting potential: PK+ >> PNa+
Action Potential: PK+ << PNa+
Repolarization: PK+ >> PNa+
 Voltage Clamp Technique
• Holds the membrane
potential (voltage) steady
at ‘command voltage’ &
look for changes in current
in response to voltage
• Depolarization leads to 2
currents
1. Transient inward current
2. Delayed outward current
 Evidence the transient, early inward
current is Na+:
1. The early inward current reverses at around Na+
equilibrium potential
2. Removing extracellular
Na+ removes the early
inward current
– Actually get a little
reversal because Na+
wants to diffuse out
3. After blocking Na+ channel with TTX, the early inward
current is lost
Evidence the delayed, outward current
is K+:
Applying TEA blocking K+
channels blocks the late
outward current
The Action Potential
The Action Potential
Absolute Refractory Period
 Ion Channels
Must:
1.Move ions across membrane at fast rate
2.Make use of electrochemical gradient
3.Be specific to specific ions
4.Some channels must be sensitive to voltage
changes

Stretch-Gated, Voltage-Gated, Ligand-Gated

 Voltage-Gated Ion Channels

• Open in response to a hyperpolarization or depolarization

• Na+ open at threshold potential

• K+ slower to open, but then rush out

 Patch Clamp Method
• Microscopic VS Macroscopic Currents

Patch Clamp Voltage Clamp

– Single channel – Whole cell
 Saltatory Conduction

Myelination insulates and widens the axon for

faster conduction

Nodes of Ranvier are gaps in the myelin, rich in ion

channels, that propagate the action potential
down the axon
 Molecular Structure of Ion Channels

Na+ Channel Structure K+ Channel Structure

• Alpha Subunit • Varied structures
– 4 repeating structures • Most subunits span the
– Makes the pore (hole) membrane 6 times
– Regions are voltage sensitive, • 4 subunits aggregating to make
• Changes in conformation (shape) 1 pore
with voltage changes
 Transporters
Transporters are ACTIVE and use energy to move ions across the membrane

Pumps
• Use ATP for energy
• Na+/K+ Pump
– Moves Na+ and K+ against
their concentration gradients
by forming complexes with
them
Exchangers
• Use energy from the
electrochemical gradient
– While Na+ moves down its
concentration gradient (inside
the cell),  changes in ion
exchanger protein
conformation (shape) that
move another ion species out
 ATPase Pumps

Ion Exchangers
 Some Helpful Resources:
Action Potential Link Khan Academy
• http://outreach.mcb.harvar • https://www.khanacademy.
d.edu/animations/actionpot org/science/biology/human
ential_short.swf -biology/neuron-nervous-
system/a/the-membrane-
potential